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African Americans in California

From Wikipedia
African Americans in California

African American Californians anaa Black Californians be people wey dey live for California wey get African roots. According to 2019 United States Census Bureau estimate, about 5.8% of people for California (that be like 2,282,144) identify only as Black or African American. Plus extra 1.2% wey say dem get part African blood, e go reach 7.0% (that be around 2.8 million people).[1] As of 2021, California get the highest number of mixed-race African American people for whole America. Black people be the fourth biggest ethnic group for California, after Hispanics, Whites, and Asians. Since the 1980s, Asians pass Black people for number.[2][3]

Black people dey plenty for places like Alameda, Contra Costa, San Francisco, and Solano Counties wey dey inside the San Francisco Bay Area, plus Sacramento and San Joaquin Counties. For Southern California, most of dem dey for Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Diego Counties.[4]

California too get growing number of Afro-Caribbean and African immigrants wey come USA. Most of the African immigrants for California be from Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Plenty Ethiopians dey live for Little Ethiopia inside West Los Angeles. California be one of the states for Western USA wey get high number of black Africans. About 41,249 Afro-Asians dey live for California.[5] Dem also get Blaxican people (people wey be part Black and part Mexican).[6] The number of Blaxicans dey increase for places like Los Angeles.[7] In 2000, California get 113,255 people wey be born for Africa mostly from Ethiopia, Nigeria, and South Africa.[8] California too get large Jamaican, Haitian, Afro-Latino, Belizean, and Caribbean population.[9] You go find small groups from places like Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, British and Dutch West Indies, and Trinidad.[9] Southern California too get big Garifuna community.[10]

De first Black people wey come California be Afro-Latino slaves or mixed-race (mulatto) people wey Spanish people bring come during de early settlement times.[11][12] During the Second Great Migration (1940s–1970s), African Americans plus Louisiana Creoles move from places like Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, Alabama, Georgia, Oklahoma and South Carolina come California.[13][14]

Since 2016, the number of Black people for California dey go down. Some dey move comot the state together with some White people.[15] Gentrification cause some Black people to lose demma homes and push dem comot from historic Black areas like Oakland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles go cheaper places like East Contra Costa, Inland Empire, and Central Valley.[16] For example, many Black people from Los Angeles move go desert areas like Palmdale and Lancaster in the 1990s. Los Angeles County and San Francisco demma Black population dey reduce fast.[17] African Americans get the second highest poverty rate for California, after Hispanics.[18] This make many Black Californians move back to Southern states like Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, Birmingham, Memphis, San Antonio, and Jackson.[19][20]

Places like Compton, Inglewood, and Watts wey before be mostly Black now dey mostly Latino. Mexicans and Central Americans don take over many of the areas wey Black people dey live before.[21][22][23] In 2019, Black people for California get higher chance to turn homeless.[24]

Some of the Black people for California come from Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. 3% of the Black population no be citizens, and 4% be naturalized immigrants. Most Black people dey stay for Los Angeles, the East Bay area of San Francisco, and Sacramento.[25] Solano County get the highest percentage of Black people per county.[26] For the Bay Area, cities like Oakland, Vallejo, Antioch, Suisun City, and Richmond get the most Black people.[27]

History

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California get ein name from one fictional Black queen, Queen Calafia, wey show for one Spanish novel from the 1500s, "Las sergas de Esplandián" by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.[28]

18th century

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People wey get African roots first land for California from Mexico during the time Spanish people dey conquer the land.[29][30] Spanish soldiers, priests, and settlers bring both free Black people and slaves come California in the 1700s.[31] People wey build towns like San Jose, San Francisco (Yerba Buena), Monterey, San Diego, and Los Angeles mostly be mixed-race (Negro and Native American) from Sonora and Sinaloa for Mexico. Plenty mulatto (half-Black, half-Spanish) people too dey inside Alta California.[32]

19th century

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Some important early California settlers and landowners get African roots.[33] Pío Pico, one mixed-race Californio politician, ranch owner, and businessperson, be the last governor of Alta California before U.S. take over in 1846.[34] Juana Briones de Miranda, another mixed-race woman wey get African roots, be one of the early businesswomen for San Francisco.[35] William Leidesdorff, one Black man of mixed race, be one of the founders of San Francisco.[36]

After gold discover for California on January 24, 1848, many African Americans come the state during the Gold Rush wey dem dey find freedom and wealth.[37][38] White people from southern U.S. bring Black slaves come dig for gold from 1849, mostly from Texas, Mississippi, Missouri, and Arkansas. [39] One gold mine called Sweet Vengeance for Browns Valley be found by Black miners.[40] Moses Rodgers be one of the top miners for California.[41]

Some of the oldest Black churches for California include the Saint Andrews African Methodist Episcopal Church, Sacramento, wey dem found in 1850, before dem know am as Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church. the Third Baptist Church, San Francisco (1852), Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church (Bethel AME Church) ,San Francisco (1852), African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion Church), San Francisco (1852),[42] and First African Methodist Episcopal Church of Los Angeles (1872).[43][44][45] In the 1870s, Rev. Peter William Cassey help form two Black Episcopalian churches for San Francisco, like Christ Mission Church and early version of St. Cyprian’s Church.[46]

From 1855 to 1902, early African Americans organize State Convention of Colored Citizens. Dem elect delegates from different counties to talk about slavery, education, and voting rights.[47][48]

Archy Lee be one enslaved Black man wey become part of important court cases for civil rights by 1858.[49][50] Edward Duplex be first Black mayor for California, elected for Wheatland in 1888.[51][52]

Insyd 1850, the census count 962 Black people. By 1860, dem be 4,086[53] By 1910, de number rise to 22,000.[54]

20th century

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Insyd de 1920s, one place called Terrific Street for San Francisco be where Black culture shine for clubs called Black and Tan (where all races dey mix)..[55]

During Second Great Migration (1940–1970), African Americans move from the South to California for better jobs and to escape Jim Crow laws [56] Many work for defense and shipyard industries.[57][58] Some Louisiana Creoles also join.[59]

Before World War II, African Americans be less than 1% of California population.[54] By 1910, only 21,645 Black residents dey compared to 2 million White people[60] . But after World War II, Black population grow fast.[54]

Insyd de late 1940s–1960s, Black musicians for San Francisco and Los Angeles start West Coast jazz.[61]

Insyd 1968, Yusuf Bey start Your Black Muslim Bakery for Santa Barbara, but later e move to Oakland in 1971.[62] The bakery be symbol of Black economic power but later collapse due to crimes like abuse and murder. Dem close am in 2007.[63][64]

For 1991, Rodney King, one African American man, suffer police brutality when three police officers from the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) beat am during ein arrest.[65][66][67] Dem catch the beating on video. After court free the police officers, the thing lead to the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[68] After the riots, about 50 people die, around 2,000 people injure, and 8,000 people dem arrest.[69]

Affirmative action be set of laws, policies, guidelines, plus administrative ways wey dem put down to stop and fix di bad things wey come from one kind discrimination.[70] Inside November 1996, California cancel Affirmative Action with Proposition 209.[71]

21st century

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Insyd 2000, California get 113,255 African immigrants, with 29,930 wey live for Bay Area. Most of dem come from Ethiopia, Nigeria, Egypt, and South Africa. About 45,000 Ethiopians and 6,000 Eritreans dey Los Angeles.[72] Egyptians and South Africans too dey settle for California.[73]

Insyd de 2010s, more Black people start move comot California go places like Texas and Atlanta[74] In 2018, Black neighborhoods still dey for places like Compton, South LA, Inglewood, Stockton,[75] Oakland, and Vallejo.[76] Oakland get about 25% Black people as of 2020. Plenty Black people wey settle for Oakland work for railroad back in mid 1900s.[77]

Insyd 2020, anti-Black hate crimes rise for California.[78][79][80][81] From 2020 to 2022, COVID-19 kill more African Americans for the state, partly because dem get the lowest vaccination rates.[82][83][84]

Media

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Dem believe say the first African American newspaper for California be Mirror of the Times, wey dem publish around di mid-1850s.[85] Other early Black newspapers for Northern California include Pacific Appeal and The Elevator;[86] for Southern California, e include California Eagle, California Voice, and Los Angeles Sentinel.[54]

Dem first mention African American people wey dey live for California in 1919 by one Black historian from California, Delilah Beasley. Later on, people like Rudolph Lapp and others also write about dem.[54] More info show for journals like The Journal of Negro History and The Journal of African American History.(3)[87]

De biggest film festival wey dey focus on Black filmmaking be Pan African Film Festival, wey dem start for 1992.[88] Other important film festivals wey dey support Black filmmakers demma career include San Diego Black Film Festival and Hollywood Black Film Festival.[89][90][91]

Education

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Elizabeth Thorn Scott Flood be one of the early African American teachers for Sacramento, wey she start teach from 1854. Later on, she move go teach for Oakland too.[92][93]

For May 1854, dem open one private school for Black people called San Francisco Colored School inside the basement of St. Cyprian AME Church wey dey Jackson and Virginia Streets for San Francisco. John Jamison Moore na the person wey start the school, he be the first teacher plus principal and Rev. Thomas Marcus Decatur Ward help lead the school too.[94][95][96]

De Phoenixonian Institute for San Jose be the first high school for African American students for the state. Dem open am in 1861 as private boarding school, but e close around the mid-1870s when public schools for the state no longer dey separate Black and White students.[97] The money and support for the Phoenixonian Institute first come from the California State Convention of Colored Citizens plus the African American community wey dey live for the West Coast.[97]

For 1874, the California Supreme Court talk say schools fit be "separate but equal" inside one case dem call Ward v. Flood.[98] The number of African American students for primary school level grow from 24 students in 1870 to 183 students by the end of the 1800s. By 1900, Black students be some of the best performing students for reading and writing subjects.[60]

De first university Black studies department for de United States start for San Francisco State University after de Third World Liberation Front strikes wey happen for 1968.[99]

For 1994, African American students for California make up about 7% of the people wey dey go higher education, compared to 9% for the whole United States.[100]

Health

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Black people for California get the highest death rates from breast, cervical, colorectal, lung, and prostate cancer.[101] For 2022, Black people for California die more from COVID-19 pass other ethnic groups, and dem also get the lowest COVID-19 vaccination rates[102] Black Californians too dey more likely to get obesity.[103] Homicide rates for African Americans in California also high pass other groups.[104]

Black people for California dey more likely to face depression, psychological distress, and other mental health problems.[105][106][107] De suicide rate for Black Californians high pass the one for White Californians.[108][109][110]

Reparations

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California be the first state wey start to consider reparations for Black people. Dem form one group called the California Reparations Task Force to prepare recommendations give the state legislature.[111] Economists tell the state say Black Californians fit dey owe around $800 billion in reparations. This $800 billion be more than 2.5 times the whole yearly budget of California, wey be $300 billion. Inside the estimate, $246 billion go be compensation give Black Californians wey live for areas wey police dey harass dem and arrest dem too much during the "war on drugs" from 1970 to 2020. That one alone fit be like $125,000 for each person wey qualify. Economists also talk say $569 billion fit go for people wey suffer from redlining, that be when dem deny Black people housing loans just because of dem skin color. That compensation go reach about $223,000 per person wey live for California between 1933 den 1977 den qualify.[112]

According to one 2023 poll wey UC Berkeley do, most California voters no support cash reparations as compensation give people wey be descendants of enslaved African Americans wey dey live for the state.[113]

Politics

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For 2016, 82% of African American voters for California register as Democrats.[114] Kamala Harris be the first African American woman wey become Vice President of the U.S., and she born plus grow for California.

Exit polls show say for 2024, 86% of African Americans for California vote for Kamala Harris.[115] For 2020, 82% vote for Joe Biden,[116][117] den for 2016, 88% vote for Hillary Clinton.[118][119]

Discrimination

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For 2021, de total number of hate crime cases reported be the sixth-highest ever recorded, and the highest since after the September 11, 2001 attacks.[120] One study by the California Department of Justice (DOJ) show say anti-Black hate crimes increase by 27% from 2021 to 2022. Hate crimes in general also go up by 20% for the whole state.[120][121]

Black people get higher arrest rates pass White people for all 58 counties wey dey California..[122] African Americans too dey often suffer racial profiling for the state.[123]

California be the first state wey ban discrimination based on natural Black hair and hairstyles. Governor Gavin Newsom sign the bill into law.[124].

References

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  1. ↑ "BLACK OR AFRICAN AMERICAN ALONE OR IN COMBINATION WITH ONE OR MORE OTHER RACES". United States Census Bureau.
  2. ↑ Greenwood, Shannon (2021-03-25). "The Growing Diversity of Black America". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  3. ↑ Tamir, Christine (2021-03-25). "The Growing Diversity of Black America". Pew Research Center (in American English). Retrieved 2025-09-16.
  4. ↑ "California Black Population By County, 2018". beautifydata.com. Retrieved 2025-06-19.
  5. ↑ "Resident Population Data - 2010 Census". 2010.census.gov. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
  6. ↑ Romo, Rebecca (April 2011). "Between Black and Brown: Blaxican (Black-Mexican) Multiracial Identity in California". Journal of Black Studies (in English). 42 (3): 402–426. doi:10.1177/0021934710376172. ISSN 0021-9347. PMID 21905327. S2CID 38217029.
  7. ↑ "'Blaxicans of L.A.' Instagram project comes to life as an exhibit in Highland Park". Los Angeles Times. February 12, 2016.
  8. ↑ Reimers, David; Reimers, Professor David (2005). Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of the American People (in English). NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7535-6.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Explore Census Data". 2018.
  10. ↑ Dolan h. Eargle, Jr (January 2008). Native California. Trees Company Press. ISBN 978-0-937401-11-8.
  11. ↑ "Afro-Latinos". NPS. Archived from the original on July 12, 2019.
  12. ↑ Menchaca, Martha (15 January 2002). Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-77848-1 – via Google Books.
  13. ↑ "The African-American Migration Experience (AAME)". Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library.
  14. ↑ Dewitt, Mark F. (February 17, 2010). Cajun and Zydeco Dance Music in Northern California: Modern Pleasures in a Postmodern World. Univ. Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781628467758.
  15. ↑ "Racial/Ethnic Differences in Who's Leaving California". Public Policy Institute of California (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  16. ↑ "The California Black Census & Redistricting Hub | California Calls" (in American English). June 28, 2019. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  17. ↑ "Black population in L.A. County declines as more return to South". Our Weekly LA (in American English). 2014-02-07. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  18. ↑ "Poverty in California". Public Policy Institute of California (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  19. ↑ Hepler, Lauren (2020-07-15). "The hidden toll of California's Black exodus". CalMatters (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  20. ↑ O'Hare, By Peggy (August 13, 2021). "Latinos, Blacks Show Strong Growth in San Antonio as White Population Declines". San Antonio Express-News.
  21. ↑ Reich, Steven A. (April 17, 2014). The Great Black Migration: A Historical Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic. Abc-Clio. ISBN 9781610696661.
  22. ↑ Noguera, Pedro A.; Syeed, Esa (2020). City Schools and the American Dream 2: The Enduring Promise of Public Education. Teachers College Press. ISBN 9780807778555.
  23. ↑ Halle, David (August 15, 2003). New York and Los Angeles: Politics, Society, and Culture--A Comparative View. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226313702.
  24. ↑ Cimini, Kate (2019-10-05). "Black people disproportionately homeless in California". CalMatters (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  25. ↑ "California's African American Community".
  26. ↑ "What's the most California county in California?". San Francisco Chronicle.
  27. ↑ "Racial Segregation in the San Francisco Bay Area, Part 2".
  28. ↑ "Fact Check: California Was Supposedly Named After Fictional Isle of Black Women Who Kept Griffins as Pets. Here's the Story". May 6, 2024.
  29. ↑ Taylor, Quintard (2000-01-01). "African American Men in the American West, 1528-1990". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 569: 102–119. doi:10.1177/000271620056900108. JSTOR 1048813. S2CID 145420060.
  30. ↑ Fisher, Damany M. (2010). Discovering Early California Afro-Latino Presence (in English). Heyday. ISBN 978-1-59714-145-1.
  31. ↑ Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass Three-volume Set. 2006.
  32. ↑ Honig, Sasha. "The Presidios of Alta California". California Missions Foundation. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  33. ↑ Mills, Michelle (February 4, 2016). "Exhibit explores the African ancestry of the founders of Los Angeles". San Gabriel Valley Tribune.
  34. ↑ "The Life and Times of Pío Pico, Last Governor of Mexican California". KCET PBS (in English). 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  35. ↑ Kamiya, Gary (2013-08-23). "Juana Briones - San Francisco's founding mother". SFGATE (in American English). Retrieved 2021-02-16.
  36. ↑ Schneider, Benjamin (December 8, 2021). "The incredible story of William Leidesdorff, San Francisco's Black founding father". San Francisco Examiner (in English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  37. ↑ Stanley, Jerry (2000). Hurry Freedom: African Americans in Gold Rush California (in English). Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-517-80096-6.
  38. ↑ "African Americans in the California Gold Rush (1848-1860) •". BlackPast. February 9, 2022.
  39. ↑ "African Americans in the Gold Rush". American Experience, PBS (in English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  40. ↑ DeWitt, Howard A. (1999). The Fragmented Dream: Multicultural California. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing. pp. 78–79, 84. ISBN 0-7872-6287-0.
  41. ↑ Beasley, Delilah L. (1919). The Negro Trail Blazers of California (1997 ed.). New York: G. K. Hall. p. 104. ISBN 9780783814261. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  42. ↑ Montesano, Philip M. (1973-07-01). "San Francisco Black Churches in the Early 1860's: Political Pressure Group". California Historical Quarterly (in English). 52 (2): 145–152. doi:10.2307/25157430. ISSN 0097-6059. JSTOR 25157430.
  43. ↑ "St. Andrews AME Church (Sacramento), is Founded". African American Registry (AAREG) (in English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  44. ↑ Stanford, Karin L. (2010). African Americans in Los Angeles (in English). Arcadia Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-7385-8094-4.
  45. ↑ "SF's oldest African-American church designated as landmark". SFGATE (in American English). 2017-11-16. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  46. ↑ Smith, Jessie Carney (2012-12-01). Black Firsts: 4,000 Ground-Breaking and Pioneering Historical Events (in English). Visible Ink Press. p. 578. ISBN 978-1-57859-424-5.
  47. ↑ Herron, Paul E. (April 2022). ""This Crisis of Our History": The Colored Conventions Movement and the Temporal Construction of Southern Politics". Studies in American Political Development (in English). 36 (1): 21–40. doi:10.1017/S0898588X21000122. ISSN 0898-588X. S2CID 246985506.
  48. ↑ Lapp, Rudolph M. (1977-01-01). Blacks in Gold Rush California (in English). Yale University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-300-06545-9.
  49. ↑ Moore, Shirley Ann Wilson (2016-10-20). Sweet Freedom's Plains: African Americans on the Overland Trails, 1841–1869 (in English). University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 7, 200–201. ISBN 978-0-8061-5685-9.
  50. ↑ Wee, Eliza (2018-06-28). "Archy Lee - Gold Chains: The Hidden History of Slavery in California". ACLU of Northern CA (in English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  51. ↑ "Edward Park Duplex (1831–1900)". BlackPast (in American English). 2008-11-26. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
  52. ↑ Gardner, Eric (May 31, 2013). "Duplex, Edward P.". Oxford African American Studies Center. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.36744. ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  53. ↑ Bradford, Eric.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 Moore, Shirley Ann Wilson (1996-01-01). "African Americans in California: A Brief Historiography". California History. 75 (3): 194–197. doi:10.2307/25177592. JSTOR 25177592.
  55. ↑ Bern, Medea Isphording (2015-01-05). San Francisco Jazz (in English). Arcadia Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-4396-4928-2.
  56. ↑ Tolnay, Stewart E. (August 2003). "The African American "Great Migration" and Beyond". Annual Review of Sociology (in English). 29 (1): 209–232. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100009. ISSN 0360-0572.
  57. ↑ "The Second Great Migration" (PDF).
  58. ↑ Norris, Keenan (27 March 2019). "African American StudiesAfrican Americans in Los Angeles". Oxford Bibliographies (in English). doi:10.1093/OBO/9780190280024-0069. Retrieved 2020-03-19.
  59. ↑ Jolivétte, Andrew (2007). Louisiana Creoles: Cultural Recovery and Mixed-Race Native American Identity. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739118962.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Campbell, Marne L. (2012-01-01). "African American Women, Wealth Accumulation, and Social Welfare Activism in 19Th-Century Los Angeles". The Journal of African American History. 97 (4): 376–400. doi:10.5323/jafriamerhist.97.4.0376. JSTOR 10.5323/jafriamerhist.97.4.0376. S2CID 149013832.
  61. ↑ Salerni, Paul (1995). "Review of West Coast Jazz". Italian Americana. 13 (2): 232–234. ISSN 0096-8846. JSTOR 29776316.
  62. ↑ DelVecchio, Rick (2003-10-02). "Black Muslim leader Bey dies; battled cancer / Remembered for opening doors to down-and-out". SFGATE (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  63. ↑ Lee, Henry K. (2007-12-15). "Life sentence for Oakland man who killed Black Muslim Bakery head". SFGATE (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  64. ↑ Lee, Henry K. (2011-03-21). "Prosecutor: Evidence links bakery, Bailey killing". SFGATE (in American English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  65. ↑ "Seven Minutes In Los Angeles - A special report.; Videotaped Beating by Officers Puts Full Glare on Brutality Issue". The New York Times (in American English). 1991-03-18. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  66. ↑ Margolick, David (1991-03-17). "Beating Case Unfolds, as Does Debate on Lawyer". The New York Times (in American English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  67. ↑ "March 3, 1991: Rodney King beating caught on video". CBS News (in American English). March 3, 2016. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  68. ↑ Mydans, Seth (April 30, 1992). "THE POLICE VERDICT; Los Angeles Policemen Acquitted in Taped Beating". The New York Times. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  69. ↑ Lewis, Femi (December 16, 2020). "39 Events that Occurred in the 1990s". ThoughtCo (in English). Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  70. ↑ Feinberg, Walter (September 15, 2005). Lafollette, Hugh (ed.). "Affirmative Action". The Oxford Handbook of Practical Ethics. 1. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199284238.003.0012.
  71. ↑ Carey, Kevin (2020-08-21). "A Detailed Look at the Downside of California's Ban on Affirmative Action". The New York Times (in American English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  72. ↑ Reimers, David (September 27, 2023). Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of the American People. NYU Press. ISBN 9780814775356.
  73. ↑ Konadu-Agyemang, Kwadwo; Takyi, Baffour K.; Arthur, John A. (September 27, 2023). The New African Diaspora in North America: Trends, Community Building, and Adaptation. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739111512.
  74. ↑ "Politics | News from The Advocate". The Advocate (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-05.
  75. ↑ Payton, Allen (February 5, 2019). "Antioch Council hires first African American as City Attorney". The Antioch Herald (in American English). Retrieved 2020-03-19.
  76. ↑ "These Are The 10 California Cities With The Largest Black Population For 2019". RoadSnacks (in American English). 2018-12-09. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
  77. ↑ Tramble, Thomas and Wilma (2007). The Pullman Porters and West Oakland. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub.
  78. ↑ "Anti-Black, gay, Asian bias fuel California hate crime surge". Omaha World-Herald (in English). AP. Retrieved 2022-07-03.
  79. ↑ "Anti-Black and Asian bias fuel California hate crime surge". Durango Herald (in American English). AP. Retrieved 2022-07-03.
  80. ↑ "California hate crime up 31% in 2020, led by anti-Black bias". AP NEWS (in English). 2021-06-30. Retrieved 2022-07-03.
  81. ↑ "Anti-Black, gay, Asian bias fuel California hate crime surge". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. Associated Press. 2022-06-28. ISSN 0190-8286. OCLC 1330888409.
  82. ↑ Hwang, Kristen (2022-02-25). "COVID-19 has turned deadlier for Black Californians, who have the state's lowest vaccination rate". CalMatters (in American English). Retrieved 2022-07-03.
  83. ↑ "African-American COVID-19 deaths 'disproportionately' high in California". The Mercury News (in American English). 2020-04-16. Retrieved 2022-07-03.
  84. ↑ "African-American COVID-19 deaths 'disproportionately' high in California". The Mercury News (in American English). 2020-04-16. Retrieved 2022-07-03.
  85. ↑ Snorgrass, J. William (1981). "The Black Press in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1856-1900". California History. 60 (4): 306–317. ISSN 0162-2897. JSTOR 25158067.
  86. ↑ "'Since Before the Beginning': The Black Pioneers of the South Bay". KQED (in American English). 2021-02-18. Retrieved 2023-08-09.
  87. ↑ Franklin, V. P. (2006-01-01). "Introduction: The African American Experience in the Western States". The Journal of African American History. 91 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1086/JAAHv91n1p1. JSTOR 20064043. S2CID 149288451.
  88. ↑ King, Susan (February 6, 2013). "The world comes calling at the Pan African Film & Arts Festival". The Los Angeles Times.
  89. ↑ Beth Accomando (April 27, 2017). "San Diego Black Film Festival Celebrates 15th Year". KPBS.
  90. ↑ Beth Wood (April 20, 2017). "San Diego Black Film Festival has new venues". San Diego Union-Tribune.
  91. ↑ "Tanya Kersey, founder of the Hollywood Black Film Festival, dies at 61". Los Angeles Times (in American English). 2022-07-21. Retrieved 2023-01-16.
  92. ↑ Wagner, Tricia Martineau (2007). African American Women of the Old West. Guilford, Conn.: TwoDot, an imprint of The Globe Pequot Press. ISBN 978-0-7627-3900-4 – via Internet Archive.
  93. ↑ "Elizabeth Thorn Scott Flood, Educator born". African American Registry (AAREG) (in English). Retrieved 2023-01-29.
  94. ↑ Adkins, Jan Batiste (2012). African Americans of San Francisco (in English). Arcadia Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7385-7619-0.
  95. ↑ Taylor, Martha C. (2016-06-24). From Labor to Reward: Black Church Beginnings in San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, and Richmond, 1849-1972 (in English). Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 5–6, 11–12. ISBN 978-1-4982-3281-4.
  96. ↑ Willard, Ruth Hendricks; Wilson, Carol Green; Baird, Joseph Armstrong (1985). Sacred Places of San Francisco (in English). Presidio Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-89141-192-5.
  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 Five Views (in English). State of California, Department of Parks and Recreation, Office of Historic Preservation. 1988. p. 78.
  98. ↑ Ficker, Douglas J. (Autumn 1999). "From Roberts to Plessy: Educational Segregation and the "Separate but Equal" Doctrine". The Journal of Negro History. 84 (4): 301–314. doi:10.2307/2649034. JSTOR 2649034. S2CID 156545977.
  99. ↑ Rooks, Nowlie (February 10, 2006). "The Beginnings of Black Studies". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
  100. ↑ "Serious Erosion of African-American Enrollment in California Higher Education". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (3): 11. 1994-01-01. doi:10.2307/2963084. JSTOR 2963084.
  101. ↑ "Health Disparities by Race and Ethnicity in California: Pattern of Inequity" (PDF). www.chcf.org.
  102. ↑ Hwang, Kristen (February 25, 2022). "COVID-19 has turned deadlier for Black Californians, who have the state's lowest vaccination rate". Calmatters.
  103. ↑ "In California… Who's Obese, Who's Not, And Why" (Press release). Public Policy Institute of California. September 28, 2006.
  104. ↑ Kim, Mina (2012-01-26). "Homicide Rate Among Calif. African-Americans Significantly Higher Than National Average". KQED (in American English). Retrieved 2023-12-27.
  105. ↑ Cummings, Linda (August 3, 2023). "Listening to Black Californians with Mental Health Conditions". California Health Care Foundation (in American English). Retrieved 2025-01-06.
  106. ↑ Pederson, A. B. (2023). "Management of Depression in Black People: Effects of Cultural Issues". Psychiatric Annals. 53 (3): 122–125. doi:10.3928/00485713-20230215-01. PMC 10312036. PMID 37396678.
  107. ↑ "CBHN Perspectives: The State of Black Mental Health in California" (PDF). www.cablackhealthnetwork.org.
  108. ↑ Sánchez-Tello, George B. (2023-03-03). "California's Black youth mental health crisis". The Imprint (in American English). Retrieved 2025-01-06.
  109. ↑ Roberts, Nigel (January 26, 2023). "Study: Black Youth In California See Double The Statewide Suicide Rate". BET (in English). Retrieved 2025-01-06.
  110. ↑ Lund, J. J.; Tomsich, E.; Schleimer, J. P.; Pear, V. A. (2023). "Changes in suicide in California from 2017 to 2021: A population-based study". Injury Epidemiology. 10: 19. doi:10.1186/s40621-023-00429-6. PMC 10041498. PMID 36973826.
  111. ↑ Fry, Wendy; Yee, Erica; Jetha, Rya (2023-06-29). "California is the first state to tackle reparations for Black residents. What that really means". CalMatters (in American English). Retrieved 2023-11-15.
  112. ↑ "Black Californians may be owed $800bn in reparations, economists tell state". The Guardian. 30 Mar 2023.
  113. ↑ Florido, Adrian (September 11, 2023). "Most California voters oppose cash reparations for slavery, poll finds". NPR.
  114. ↑ "Just the Facts: Race and Voting in California". September 2016.
  115. ↑ "Election 2024: Exit polls". CNN Politics (in English). 2024.
  116. ↑ Brittany Mayes, Leslie Shapiro, Chris Alcantara, Scott Clement, Emily Guskin (2020-11-07) [2020-11-02]. "Exit poll results and analysis for the 2020 presidential election". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. ISSN 0190-8286. OCLC 1330888409.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  117. ↑ "California 2020 President exit polls". CNN.
  118. ↑ "California Results 2016". NBC News. November 28, 2016.
  119. ↑ Miller, Kenneth P. (August 2020). Texas Vs. California: A History of Their Struggle for the Future of America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-007736-5.
  120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 Harvey‌, Antonio‌ ‌Ray‌ ‌ (July 14, 2022). "Incidents of Hate Crimes Against Blacks Highest in California". Los Angeles Sentinel.
  121. ↑ Flores, Hilda (2023-06-28). "Hate crime reports in CA increased 20% from 2021 to 2022, report shows. Here's a closer look". KCRA (in English). Retrieved 2023-07-21. Hate crime reports in California increased about 20%; anti-Black hate crimes remain the most prevalent, with an increase of 27.1%
  122. ↑ "Racial Disparities in California Arrests".
  123. ↑ "Californians Fear Being a Victim of Crime, and Some Have Been Victims of Racial Profiling".
  124. ↑ Stack, Liam (June 28, 2019). "California Is First State to Ban Discrimination Based on Natural Hair". The New York Times.
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