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Awash River

From Wikipedia
Awash River
river
Mouth of the watercourseLake Abbe Edit
Lake for watercourse topLake Abbe Edit
CountryEthiopia Edit
Coordinate location9°0′43″N 38°8′50″E, 11°11′10″N 41°42′28″E Edit

De Awash River (sometimes dem spell am Awaash; Oromo: Awaash anaa Hawaas, Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: Hawaash We'ayot, Somali: Webiga Dir, Italian: Auasc) be a major river of Ethiopia. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus Djibouti, about 100 kilometres (62 mi) from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.[1]

De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (Belg), den a longer one between June den September (Kiremt), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict Climate change to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.[2]

De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).[3] Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.[3]

De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.[4] Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.[4] Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for UNESCO ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.[4]

Geography

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Awash River near Asaita (2015)

De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.[1] Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) long.[5] E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of 250 metres (820 ft).[6] Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.[6]

De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately 11°0′N 40°30′E / 11.000°N 40.500°E / 11.000; 40.500 as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori.

Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita.

Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.[6]

Climate

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De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (Belg), den a longer one between June den September (Kiremt), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am Bega.[7] Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan 1,600 millimetres (63 in) of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.[8]

Climate change

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A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.[2]

Hydrology

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Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).[1]

Rainfall, droughts den floods

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Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis high intra-annual variability). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.[2] Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.[9] De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.[9] Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".[10]: 7  For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur.

Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.[2] Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.[2]

Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."[10]: 41 

Groundwater

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Groundwater recharge dey vary between values wey dey exceed 350 millimetres (14 in) per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.[8][11] Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,[12] wey annual rainfall dey higher dan 1,000 millimetres (39 in).[11] Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.[12] Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.[12] Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.[11]

De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for groundwater top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.[6] Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.[6]

Ecology

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Awash River for de Awash National Park insyd

Most of de Awash basin be part of de Ethiopian montane forests ecoregion. At high altitudes de Ethiopian montane grasslands den woodlands den Ethiopian montane moorlands dey predominate. De Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands den thickets ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.[13]

De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.[8] All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.[14]

Fauna

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De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de African wild ass. De mammal be now extinct for Yangudi Rassa National Park insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve insyd.[15] Oda large animals native to de area dey include Beisa Oryx, Soemmering ein gazelle, Dorcas gazelle, gerenuk den Grevy ein zebra. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river.

Human activities den impacts

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Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by Guglielmo Massaia

De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.[3] Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den sugar factories (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).[6]

Water supply

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De water supplies of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.[16]

Economic activities

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De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of Addis Ababa insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total irrigated area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.[1]

Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small eucalyptus plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.[14] Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly reforestation for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary coniferous forests. De cultivated crops be (endemic) teff, maize, sorghum, beans den vegetables.[14]

Pastures dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De cattle graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give erosion, sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.[17]

Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for rainfed agriculture insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.[1]

Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for food insecurity insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein gross domestic product (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. Humanitarian assistance requests be relatively common sekof climate shocks, such as de 2015/2016 El Niño events wey result for a severe drought insyd den a humanitarian response dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.[2]

Pollution

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De Awash River at Sodere, Ethiopia (2014)

Municipal den industrial wastewater treatment plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma effluents (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus polluting dem.[16]

Growing industrialization den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de ecosystem sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.[3] De term geogenic dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena.

Heavy metal pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.[3] Polluting industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as Addis Ababa, Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, Sebeta, Bishoftu, Gelan, Adama, Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.[3]

Water quality

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A study of river water quality for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de WHO limit give drinking water; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.[3] Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of drinking water den irrigation.

De presence of emerging organic contaminants for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, personal care products, industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow groundwater systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, veterinary drugs, artificial sweeteners, den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find endocrine disruptors den equine drugs for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."[18]

De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.[6] Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.[6]

For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.[6]

Paleontology

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Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human hominid remains for de Middle Awash insyd.[19] De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late Miocene, Pliocene, de early Pleistocene (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many Australopithecines, wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual Australopithecus.[4][19] Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include Homo erectus den Ardipithecus.

History

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For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great Dir river den dey lay for de country of de Muslims insyd.[20]

De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de Koka Reservoir

20th Century

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De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de Aussa oasis insyd be Wilfred Thesiger for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to Tadjoura. (Although de explorer L. M. Nesbitt follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de Afar Depression to de Red Sea.[21])

For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around 75 kilometres (47 mi) from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of hydroelectric power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as Koka Reservoir), get an area of about 180 square kilometres (69 sq mi). Increasing sedimentation threaten both lake den dam.

Society den culture

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De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)

De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de Afar pippoe den Issa Somali clan.[22] Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de Fatagar, Ifat, den Shewa.[23]

Dem name de Awash International Bank after de Awash River.[24]

Make you sanso see

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  • Adama–Awash Expressway
  • Awash–Weldiya Railway
  • List of rivers of Ethiopia
  • List of fossil sites (plus link directory)
  • List of hominina (hominid) fossils (plus images)
  • List of most polluted rivers
  • List of World Heritage Sites for Ethiopia insyd

References

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  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Borgomeo, Edoardo; Vadheim, Bryan; Woldeyes, Firew B.; Alamirew, Tena; Tamru, Seneshaw; Charles, Katrina J.; Kebede, Seifu; Walker, Oliver (2018). "The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia". Ecological Economics (in English). 146: 621–632. Bibcode:2018EcoEc.146..621B. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Taye, Meron Teferi; Dyer, Ellen; Hirpa, Feyera A.; Charles, Katrina (2018). "Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia". Water (in English). 10 (11): 1560. Bibcode:2018Water..10.1560T. doi:10.3390/w10111560. ISSN 2073-4441. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Abebe, Yosef; Whitehead, Paul; Alamirew, Tena; Jin, Li; Alemayehu, Esayas (2023). "Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment (in English). 195 (10): 1188. Bibcode:2023EMnAs.195.1188A. doi:10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z. ISSN 0167-6369. PMC 10497432. PMID 37698767. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Lower Valley of the Awash". UNESCO World Heritage Site. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  5. ↑ "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)" Archived 2010-11-13 at the Wayback Machine, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Abebe, Yosef; Alemayehu, Taye; Birhanu, Behailu; Alamirew, Tena; Alemayehu, Esayas (2024). "Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use". Sustainability (in English). 16 (12): 5257. Bibcode:2024Sust...16.5257A. doi:10.3390/su16125257. ISSN 2071-1050. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  7. ↑ Seleshi, Yilma; Zanke, Ulrich (2004-06-30). "Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia". International Journal of Climatology (in English). 24 (8): 973–983. Bibcode:2004IJCli..24..973S. doi:10.1002/joc.1052. ISSN 1097-0088.
  8. 1 2 3 Knoche, Malte; Fischer, Christian; Pohl, Eric; Krause, Peter; Merz, Ralf (2014). "Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia". Journal of Hydrology. 519: 2049–2066. Bibcode:2014JHyd..519.2049K. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003.
  9. 1 2 Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin. REACH Discussion brief.
  10. 1 2 Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.
  11. 1 2 3 Ayenew, Tenalem; Demlie, Molla; Wohnlich, Stefan (2008). "Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 52 (3): 97–113. Bibcode:2008JAfES..52...97A. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006.
  12. 1 2 3 Bretzler, Anja; Osenbrück, Karsten; Gloaguen, Richard; Ruprecht, Janina S.; Kebede, Seifu; Stadler, Susanne (2011). "Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift". Journal of Hydrology. 402 (3–4): 274–289. Bibcode:2011JHyd..402..274B. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022.
  13. ↑ "The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere". ResearchGate (in English). Retrieved 2017-10-21.
  14. 1 2 3 Knoche, M. (2011). Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) (Masters thesis). Freiberg, Germany: Technische Universität Freiberg.
  15. ↑ Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). "Equus africanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015 e.T7949A45170994. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en. Retrieved 19 March 2026.
  16. 1 2 Zinabu, Eskinder; Alamirew, Tena; Gebrehiwot, Solomon G.; Whitehead, Paul; Charles, Katrina; Zeleke, Gete (2024). "Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries". Scientific African (in English). 23 e02063. Bibcode:2024SciAf..2302063Z. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  17. ↑ Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Moeyersons, Jan; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2008-04-30). "Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms (in English). 33 (5): 695–711. Bibcode:2008ESPL...33..695N. doi:10.1002/esp.1569. hdl:1854/LU-416185. ISSN 1096-9837.
  18. ↑ Hailu, Kidist; Kebede, Seifu; Birhanu, Behailu; Lapworth, Dan (2024). "Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia". Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies (in English). 54 101869. Bibcode:2024JHyRS..5401869H. doi:10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869.
  19. 1 2 Haile-Selassie, Yohannes (2001-07-12). "Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature (in English). 412 (6843): 178–181. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..178H. doi:10.1038/35084063. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 11449272. S2CID 4432082.
  20. ↑ ʻArabfaqīh, Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir (2003-01-01). The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century (in English). Hollywood: Tsehai Publishers & Distributors. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-9723172-6-9.
  21. ↑ As related in his memoirs, Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)
  22. ↑ Markakis, John (2003). "Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia". Review of African Political Economy. 30 (97): 445–453. doi:10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777. hdl:10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777. ISSN 0305-6244. JSTOR 4006987. S2CID 153511308.
  23. ↑ Richard Pankhurst, The Ethiopian Borderlands (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61
  24. ↑ "assessment of credit risk management policies" (PDF). 1 November 2022.
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Dem retrieve am from "https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Awash_River&oldid=105104"