Back-to-Africa movement

Back-to-Africa movement

political movement

De back-to-Africa movement be a political movement insyd de 19th den 20th centuries advocating for a return of de descendants of African American slaves to Sub-Saharan Africa insyd de African continent. De small number of freed slaves who do settle insyd Africa—some under duress—initially face brutal conditions, due to diseases to which they no longer had biological resistance. As de failure become known insyd de United States insyd de 1820s, e spawned den energized de radical abolitionist movement. Insyd de 20th century, de Jamaican political activist den black nationalist Marcus Garvey, members of de Rastafari movement, den oda African Americans support de concept, but few actually leave de United States.

Insyd de late 18th century, thousands of Black Loyalists join British military forces during de American Revolutionary War. Insyd 1787, de British Crown founded a settlement insyd Sierra Leone insyd what be called de "Province of Freedom", beginning a long process of settlement of formerly enslave African Americans insyd Sierra Leone. During these same years, some African Americans launch demma own initiatives to return to Africa, den by 1811, Paul Cuffe, a wealthy New England African-American/Native-American shipper, had transported some members of de group known as de "Free African Society" to Liberia. During these years, some free African Americans sana relocate to Haiti, where a slave revolution had effected a free black state by 1800. On 18 November 1803, Haiti become de first nation ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt. Insyd de following years, Liberia be founded by free Africans from de United States. De emigration of African Americans both free den recently emancipated be funded den organized by de American Colonization Society (ACS), which dey hope dat slavery can be ended as an institution, without releasing millions of former slaves into American society. De mortality rate of these settlers be high. Of de 4,571 emigrants who arrive insyd Liberia between 1820 den 1843, only 1,819 survive.

Background

White writers do not much discuss de question of where free black people of American birth should reside, den by some black thinkers, insyd de 18th century: "At de time of de American Revolution, there had been few free blacks anywhere insyd de country." Insyd 1776, slavery be legal everywhere insyd de Thirteen Colonies dat become de United States through de American Revolutionary War. There be a small number of free black people. Pressures for ending slavery begin small but steadily increased. Various philosophical den religious condemnations of slavery be published, especially by Quakers. Slavery become illegal insyd England insyd 1772 by court decision (see Somerset v Stewart), den insyd de British Empire by statute insyd 1833. Insyd France, slavery be illegal at least since de 16th century. As part of de French Revolution, e be abolished insyd French colonies insyd 1794, although e be restored from 1802 to 1848. Starting insyd 1791, de enslaved of Saint-Domingue revolted, gaining demma freedom, den establishing de free black country of Haiti. Starting plus Pennsylvania den Massachusetts insyd 1780, slavery be gradually abolished insyd all de Northern states, although dis do not mean dat existing slaves be always freed. Vermont, which no be part of de United States at de time, abolished adult slavery insyd ein foundational document of 1777. Insyd de 1840 census, there still be hundreds of slaves insyd de North den millions more insyd de South. By de 1850 census, there no be slaves insyd de free states. Insyd de South, sometimes influenced by appeals from preachers—abolitionism insyd de United States had a strong religious component—some individuals freed demma slaves or leave instructions insyd demma will, to free them upon de owner ein death.

De number of free black people insyd de new United States skyrocketed, den de question of "what to do plus them" steadily grow insyd importance. Even when free, nowhere insyd de United States do they have de same rights as white people. They no be citizens, as de Dred Scott decision make clear. Usually seen as racially inferior, few whites believe them to be a desirable or even possible part of American society. They were prohibited from living insyd some areas den there be much completely legal discrimination. Black passengers on river boats be not allow insyd de cabin but had to stay on deck, whatever the weather. In Florida, each free black man had to have a white man who can be sue for de Negro ein misdeeds, if any, since black people can neither sue nor be sued. De Quaker Zephaniah Kingsley, who believe that de amalgamation of de races be desirable, be force to leave Florida for Haiti. Insyd de South, until e be forbidden, free black people learn to read and write, den often come into contact plus de widely circulated abolitionist writings. De slave owners who controlled de Southern states saw these free black people as a threat to de stability of de economy den society, den made no secret of demma desire to be rid of them.

De emergence of de back-to-Africa movement

Much of the African-American population was freed people seeking opportunity. Many Southern freed blacks migrate to de industrial North to seek employment, while odas move to surrounding Southern states. No one anywhere wanted them; they were seen as perpetual foreigners who, by working for less, took jobs from citizens. Whites no be used to sharing space plus blacks insyd a context outside of chattel slavery. Many do not believe dat free blacks had a place insyd America.

Insyd de North, many whites believe dat blacks can not achieve equality insyd de United States den therefore pushed for demma emigration to Africa, even though most had been born insyd de U.S. den had never seen Africa.

Such sentiment no be exclusive to Northerners. One proponent of de colonization movement, Solomon Parker of Hampshire County, Virginia, be quoted as having said: "I am not willing dat de Man or any of my Blacks shall ever be freed to remain insyd de United States.... Am opposed to slavery den sana oppose to freeing blacks to stay insyd our Country den do sincerely hope dat de time be approaching when our Land shall be rid of them."

Riots sweep de free states insyd waves, usually insyd urban areas where there had been recent immigration of blacks from de South. De height of these riots be insyd 1819, plus 25 riots dey record, wey result insyd many injuries den fatalities, although riots continue up through de 1830s (see anti-abolitionism insyd de North). De back-to-Africa movement be seen as de solution to these problems by both groups, plus more support from de white population than de black population. Blacks often view de project plus skepticism, particularly among de middle class, who fear dat de Colonization movement be a ploy to deport free African Americans to restrict demma efforts against slavery. Shortly after de foundation of de American Colonization Society, 3,000 free blacks gather insyd a church insyd Philadelphia den issued forth a declaration stating dat they "will never separate ourselves voluntarily from de slave population of de country." Similarly, black leaders, such as James Forten, who had previously support de Colonization Movement, change demma minds as a result of widespread black resistance to de idea.

Religious motivations for colonization

Following de Great Awakening, insyd which America be swept by a wave of religious fervor, many enslave African Americans converted to Christianity. At de same time, many religious people insyd America struggle to reconcile slavery plus demma beliefs. Quakers insyd particular found difficulty insyd continue support for de enslavement of demma brothers insyd Christ. For example, Reverend Moses Tichnell den Reverend Samuel R. Houston free slaves den send them to Liberia insyd 1855 den 1856, respectively. These two men, believing dat they were morally obligated to finance such voyages, played an important role insyd de colonization movement.

American Colonization Society

De American Colonization Society (ACS) was an early advocate of de idea of resettling American-born blacks insyd Africa. Founded insyd 1816 by Dr. Robert Finley, e be composed of two core groups: abolitionists den slave owners. Abolitionist members believe insyd freeing African slaves, along plus demma descendants, den providing them plus de opportunity to return to Africa. Slave-owning members believe free blacks endangered de system of slavery den sought to expel them from America by means of migration.

De American Colonization Society come under attack from American abolitionists, who insist dat de removal of freed slaves from de United States reinforced de institution of slavery.

Since ein inception, de American Colonization Society struggle to garner support from insyd free black communities. During de late 1840s den early 1850s, de creation of an independent Liberian state splintered de nearly uniform voice against colonization. De Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 provide de United States government plus ample power to recapture fugitive slaves. Following ein passage, many black leaders promoted emigration den colonization to a nation dat will provide den protect demma rights.

Insyd spite of dis, several black critics be outspoken against de back-to-Africa movement den de activities of de American Colonization Society. A report from a free black political conference insyd New York warned: "all kinds of chicanery den stratagem will be employed to allure de people [to de colony]...de independence of ein inhabitants; de enjoyment den privileges of ein citizens, will be pictured forth insyd glowing colors, to deceive you."

According to de Encyclopedia of Georgia History and Culture, "as early as 1820, black Americans dey begin to return to demma ancestral homeland through de auspices of de American Colonization Society." By 1847, de American Colonization Society found Liberia, a land to be settled by black people returning from de United States of America. Between 1822 den de American Civil War, de American Colonization Society dey migrate approximately 15,000 free blacks back to Africa.

Notable members of de American Colonization Society include Thomas Buchanan, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, Abraham Lincoln, James Madison, Daniel Webster, John Marshall, den Francis Scott Key.

Oda pre-Civil War attempts

Insyd 1811, Paul Cuffe, "a black man who be a wealthy man of property, a petitioner for equal rights for blacks", begin to explore de idea of Black people returning to demma native land; convinced dat "opportunities for de advancement of black people be limited insyd America, d he become interested insyd African colonization." Plus de help of Quakers insyd Philadelphia, he be able to transport 38 blacks to Freetown, Sierra Leone, insyd 1815.

Martin Delany, an African American, insyd 1854 lead de National Emigration Convention insyd Cleveland, Ohio. He visit Liberia. He make plans, largely unrealized, to assist Blacks insyd relocating there.

Post-emancipation

De back-to-Africa movement eventually begin to decline but will see a revival again insyd 1877 at de end of de Reconstruction era, as many blacks insyd de South faced violence from groups such as de Ku Klux Klan. Interest among de South ein black population insyd African emigration peak during de 1890s, a time when racism reach ein peak den de greatest number of lynchings insyd American history take place. De continue experience of segregation, discrimination, den de belief dat they will never achieve true equality attracted many blacks to a Pan-African emancipation insyd demma motherland.

De movement decline again following many hoaxes den fraudulent activities associated plus de movement. According to Crumrin, however, de most important reason for de decline insyd de back-to-Africa movement be dat de "vast majority of those meant to colonize do not wish to leave. Most free blacks simply do not want to go 'home' to a place from which they were generations removed. America, not Africa, was their home, and they had little desire to migrate to a strange and forbidding land not demma own." They often say dat they no be more African than white Americans be British.

Florida Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward (1905–1909) call for blacks to be permanently move to land de federal government will purchase, either foreign or domestic. After buying demma respective properties, a territory would be established where blacks can not leave, den whites can not enter.

Early 20th century attempts at resettlement be made, such as those by Chief Alfred Sam between 1913 den 1915. De eventual disillusionment of those who migrated to de North den de frustrations of struggling to cope plus urban life set de scene for de back-to-Africa movement of de 1920s, established by Marcus Garvey. Garvey contemporaneously serve as a major inspiration for a number of 1920s activists den preachers, such as James E. Lewis, whose Los Angeles congregation help to finance de construction of a passenger ship. Many of those who migrated to de Northern States from de South found dat, although they be financially better off, they remain at de bottom both economically den socially. Garvey supported a proposal by Torrey George McCallum dat pass de Mississippi State Senate insyd 1922, though e be widely rejected den ridicule by de Black press.

De movement pick up steam once again insyd de decade or so preceding de Second World War. Activists insyd de Peace Movement of Ethiopia organisation be commit to black emigration to West Africa insyd order to escape from de torrid social conditions which they be experiencing insyd de United States due to de Depression. They harboured an almost utopian vision of Liberia, create from a simultaneous vision of Pan-Africanism den a belief dat de Americanisation they will provide will heal Liberia ein social den economic troubles. Dis reflects de imperialist assumption of de PME den oda back-to-Africa proponents dat African-Americans had de right to return to den determine Africa ein future. Oda were unaware or ignored dat Liberia had been crippled by de Depression den instead view e as prosperous. Mittie Maude Lena Gordon, de founder of de PME, be essential to dis campaign as she acquire de support of Earnest Sevier Cox, a white nationalist from Richmond, Virginia. She convince him to support demma cause by using ein gender insyd order to appear submissive den thus appeal to Cox ein masculinity, as well as by playing on demma mutual goal of racial separatism. Cox provided influential connections dat de movement dey previously lacked, de he gave de issue of black emigration political exposure when he manage to convince members of de Virginia General Assembly to recommend dat de US Congress provide financial aid for dis insyd 1936. Despite Cox ein racial beliefs, de PME retain support amongst black communities because Gordon describe him as a necessary, Moses-like figure.

Ein support soon begin to diminish, so Gordon look elsewhere, once again finding an unlikely ally on de opposite side of de moral compass insyd Senator Theodore G. Bilbo. An ardent white nationalist, Bilbo had been campaigning for racial separatism insyd de government for a while. He propose an amendment to de House Joint Resolution 679—a work relief bill—in 1938, dat will have "repatriated" African American volunteers to Liberia, providing them with financial assistance. This amendment was endorsed by Marcus Garvey den de Universal Negro Improvement Association at de Eight International UNIA convention. Dis amendment provided de precedent for de movement to progress; Bilbo had de political capital which he needed insyd order to get de issue of black repatriation into wide-scale political debate. Dis issue continue to exist, den insyd early 1939, Bilbo begin to draft what come to be known as de Greater Liberia Bill. De bill suggested dat de United States should purchase 400,000 square miles of African land from England den France, e should credit them as war debts, den e should provide financial assistance to black Americans insyd order to encourage them to relocate to Africa. E be unclear who, if anyone, de PME send to Liberia insyd order to facilitate de emigration which dis bill will have encouraged.

Outside de black nationalist movement, de bill do not garner much support, plus leading civil rights groups such as de NAACP refusing to endorse e den de national press lambasting e. Oda African Americans do not support emigration to Liberia due to charges of slavery den political corruption, which be filed against ein government by de League of Nations. Additionally, de bill received very little support from de Senate; thus, black repatriation lost much of ein traction. US participation insyd de Second World War lead to a decline insyd public racism, which make any passing of de bill unlikely after dat.

De back-to-Africa movement return to national prominence insyd de 1960s, due to de racial unrest during de Civil Rights Movement. George Lincoln Rockwell, a white nationalist den de founder of de American Nazi Party, support de resettlement of all African Americans insyd a new African state to be funded by de U.S. government.

Because they shared ein racial separatist views, Rockwell forge some ties plus leaders of de black nationalist movement, such as Nation of Islam leader Elijah Muhammad den Malcolm X — de latter of whom change ein views den opposed de N.O.I ein black separatism. De National Post writes dat "De American Nazi Party espouse a similar segregation dream as de Nation of Islam — even if de details differed. De American Nazis planned to offer a one-way ticket to Africa for every black person insyd de United States insyd order to form a new country. Those who chose to remain will be round up den placed into reservations." De Nation of Islam, holding dat all white people be inherently evil, be inclined to trust Rockwell, as they view him as "honest" for being open insyd ein espousal of hatred for Black people.

Insyd January 1962, Rockwell write to ein followers dat Elijah Muhammad "knows dat [race] mixing be a Jewish fraud den leads only to aggravation of de problems dat e be supposed to solve...I have talked to de Muslim leaders den am certain dat a workable plan for separation of de races can be effected to de satisfaction of all concerned." Of de N.O.I., Rockwell say, 'I am fully insyd concert plus demma program, den I have de highest respect for Elijah Muhammad,' den donated $20 (~$204.00 in 2023) to de Nation of Islam at demma 'Freedom Rally' event on June 25, 1961, at Uline Arena insyd Washington, where he den 10–20 of ein "stormtroopers" attend a speech given by Malcolm X. Rockwell sana be guest speaker at a N.O.I event insyd de International Amphitheater insyd Chicago hosted by Elijah Mohammed den Malcolm X on February 25, 1962.

Malcolm X renounce ein black separatist views after ein pilgrimage to Mecca insyd 1964.

Repatriation to Africa

Ex-slave repatriation or de emigration of African-American, Caribbean, den Black British former slaves to Africa occur mainly during de late 18th century to mid-19th century. Insyd de cases of Sierra Leone den Liberia, both be established by former slaves who be repatriated to Africa insyd a 28-year period.

Sierra Leone

Many freed slaves be discontent plus where they be resettled insyd Canada after de Revolutionary War den be eager to return to demma homeland. Beginning insyd 1787, de British government first attempted to settle people insyd Sierra Leone. About 300 Black Britons, known as de Black Poor of London, be settled on de Sierra Leonean peninsula insyd West Africa. Insyd two years, most members of de settlement will die from disease or conflict plus de local Temne people. Insyd 1792, a second attempt at settlement be made when 1,100 freed slaves established Freetown plus support from British abolitionist Thomas Clarkson. Demma numbers be further bolstered when more than 500 Jamaican Maroons be transported first to Nova Scotia, den then to Sierra Leone insyd 1800.

Insyd 1815, Paul Cuffe bring de first group of thirty-eight emigrant freed slaves from de United States to Sierra Leone. Insyd1820, minister Daniel Coker lead a group of ninety free blacks insyd hopes of founding a new colony insyd Sierra Leone. He intend to proselytize Christianity among de Africans. Leaving New York on de ship Elizabeth, his voyage ended on an island off de coast of Sierra Leone. Arriving just before de rains of spring, de group of immigrants be soon stricken plus fever. The survivors ultimately fled to Freetown, and the settlement disintegrated.

De repatriation of slaves to Africa from de United Kingdom den ein dependencies plus de Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor. Dis organization later be succeeded by de Sierra Leone Company. Insyd time, African American Black Loyalists den West Indians would immigrate to de colony of Freetown, Sierra Leone, in smaller numbers in efforts lead by black merchants or beneficiaries such as Paul Cuffe.

De Sierra Leone Creole people are descendants of the Black Poor, freed African-American, Jamaican Maroon and Liberated African slaves who settled in the Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 and about 1885. The colony was established by the British, supported by abolitionists, under the Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. The settlers called their new settlement Freetown.

De Sierra Leone Creole people be descendants of de Black Poor, free African-American, Jamaican Maroon den Liberated African slaves who settle insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, supported by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers call demma new settlement Freetown.

Liberia

De history of Liberia (after European arrival) be, plus Sierra Leone, unique insyd Africa; starting neither as a native state, nor as a European colony. Plus de departure of de first ship to Africa insyd 1820, de American Colonization Society established settlements for free American blacks on de coast of West Africa. De first American ships be uncertain of where they be heading. Demma plan be to follow the British ein paths, or simply take a chance on where they would land. At first, they followed de previous routes of de British den reached de coast of Sierra Leone. After leave Sierra Leone, de Americans slowly reach a more southern part of de African coastline.

De Americans eventually found a suitable spot to establish demma colonies, arriving at what de British had named de Pepper Coast. (The name of this region referred to de type of ginger spice use for medicine flavoring, Grains of paradise.) Along de Pepper Coast, local African groups de variably force or convince to give de Americans tracts of land; most probably assume they be providing short-term land leases base on ancestral patterns of landlord-stranger relationships. Over de course of twenty years, a series of fragmented settlements sprang across Liberia ein coast, which had been inhabited by indigenous people since at least de 16th century. Along plus de difficulty of gaining enough land, life proved hard for these early settlers. Disease be widespread, along plus de lack of food. Almost 50% of de new settlers die insyd de first twenty years after demma arrival insyd Liberia.

Liberia declare independence on July 26, 1847. Plus an elected black government den de offer of free land to African-American settlers, Liberia become de most common destination of emigrating African Americans during de 19th century. Newly arriving African Americans to Liberia experienced many challenges, wey include broken family ties, very high mortality rates from disease, den a difficult adjustment period. A group of 43 African Americans from Christiansburg, Virginia, dey leave for Liberia insyd 1830, but suffer high mortality. "Eighty percent of de emigrants be dead insyd ten years of landing there, most of them victims of malaria; anoda ten percent quit de colony, plus de majority fleeing to Sierra Leone." Many African Americans who survive dis period of adjustment insyd Liberia become fond of de country.

Black interest in Liberian emigration emerged when the Civil War promised the end of slavery and meaningful change to the status of Black Americans. Some 7,000 enslaved people were freed by their masters, so at that point, those free African Americans left the U.S. to escape racism and have more opportunities (mainly because they had lost all hope of achievement). Insyd de 1830s, de movement become increasingly dominated by Southern slave owners, who do not want free blacks den see sending them to Liberia as a solution. Slaves freed from slave ships were send there instead of demma countries of origin. De emigration of free blacks to Liberia particularly increase after Nat Turner ein Rebellion of 1831. Middle-class blacks be more resolve to live as black Americans; many rural poor folks give up on de United States den looked to Liberia to construct a better life. Liberia promised freedom den equality; e sana represent a chance for a better life for de South ein black farmers. De Liberian government offer 25 acres of free land for each immigrant family, den 10 acres for a single adult who come to de Black republic. Insyd de early 19th century, Liberia evoked mixed images insyud de minds of black Americans. They viewed Liberia as a destination for black families who leave de United States insyd search of a better way of life, returning to demma ancestral homeland of Africa.

As note by researcher Washington Hyde, "Black Americans—who insyd de time of slavery lost demma original languages den much of demma original culture, gain a distinctly American, English-speaking Christian identity, den had no clear idea of precisely where insyd de wide continent of Africa demma ancestors had come from—be perceived by de natives of Liberia as foreign settlers. Having an African ancestry den a black skin color be definitely not enough. Indeed, demma settlement insyd Liberia had much insyd common plus de contemporary white settlement of de American Frontier den these settlers ein struggle made Native American tribes.... De Liberian experience can also be considered as anticipating dat of Zionism den Israel—plus Jews similarly seeking redemption through a return to an ancestral land den similarly being regarded as foreign interlopers by de local Arab tribes. E will take Americo-Liberians a century den more to become truly accepted as one of Liberia ein ethnic groups.... All of which certainly contributed to most Black Americans rejecting de Back-to-Africa option den opting instead for seeking equal rights insyd America."

Notable emigrants from tde United States to Africa

• Joseph Jenkins Roberts (1809–1876), first President den founding father of Liberia
• Thomas Peters (1738–1792), African-American Black Loyalist leader den founder of Freetown, Sierra Leone (departed after settling insyd Halifax, Nova Scotia)
• William Coleman (1842–1908), President of Liberia
• Stephen Allen Benson (1816–1865), President of Liberia
• David George (1740/42–1810), African-American Baptist preacher insyd Sierra Leone
• Boston King (1760–1802), African-American Methodist missionary insyd Sierra Leone
• Henry Washington (or Harry Washington), African-born slave to first U.S. President George Washington who emigrated to Sierra Leone
• Daniel Coker (1780–1846), African-American missionary to Sierra Leone
• Edward Jones (1807–1865), African-American missionary to Sierra Leone
• Edward J. Roye (1815–1872), President of Liberia, den first president from de True Whig Party
• John Russwurm (1799–1851), founder of Freedom ein Journal, de first black newspaper insyd de United States, who emigrated to Liberia
• Abraham Hazeley (1784–1847), founder of what be to become one of de most prominent Creole families insyd Freetown, Sierra Leone.
• Cato Perkins (died 1805), missionary who migrated to Freetown, where he lead a strike of carpenters against de Sierra Leone Company
• Mary Perth (1740–1813), prominent African-American colonist den businesswoman insyd Freetown, Sierra Leone
• Easmon medical dynasty, medical den business family insyd Sierra Leone
• Elizabeth Renner (died 1826), emigrated to Sierra Leone den become de first female teacher den principal of a girls ein school insyd de missionary insyd Africa.

Sanso see

• African-American diaspora
• African Americans in Africa
• African Americans in the Revolutionary War
• Nova Scotian Settlers
• Atlantic Creole
• American Colonization Society
• Linconia
• Remigration
• African Americans in Ghana
• Afro-American settlement in Africa
• Diaspora tourism
• Door of Return
• Genealogy tourism (Africa)
• Haigui
• Return to roots
• Repatriation of Zainichi Koreans
• Right of return (Ghana)
• Turner Chapel, a Canadian church which is named after Bishop Turner
• Scipio Vaughan
• Year of Return, Ghana 2019
• Zionist antisemitism

General bibliography

• Barnes, Kenneth C. Journey of Hope: The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
• Brooks, George. Landlords and Strangers: Ecology, Society, And Trade In Western Africa, 1000-1630. Routledge, 1993.
• Campbell, James. Middle Passage: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005. New York: Penguin Press, 2006.
• Clegg, Claude A. III. The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
• Jenkins, David (1975). Black Zion: The Return of Afro-Americans and West Indians to Africa. Wildwood House. ISBN 978-0-7045-0116-4.
• Malcolm X; Haley, Alex (1992) [1965]. The Autobiography of Malcolm X (in English). New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-37671-8.
• Page, Sebastian N. Black Resettlement and the American Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2021.
• Weisbord, Robert G. Ebony Kinship: Africa, Africans, and the Afro-American. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973.

External links

• Palmer, Barbara (1 March 2006). "Historian situates 'back-to-Africa' movements in broad context". Stanford University.
• "Back to Africa: The Colonization Movement". Archived from the original on 2 February 2007.
• "African American Nation Radio Online Radio by AA Nation1". BlogTalkRadio. June 25, 2010.
• "Reclaiming the Middle Passage: African-American Actor Isaiah Washington becomes first to use DNA Testing to gain Citizenship to an African Nation (Sierra Leone)". SwitSalone. 26 April 2010.
• "Hatenanny Records The Record Label of the American Nazi Party".