Benin Bronzes

Benin Bronzes

group of sculptures

Subclass of	statue, relief sculpture
Dem name after	bronze, Benin Empire
Country	Nigeria
Edey de administrative territorial entity insyd	Benin City
Ein location	Ethnological Museum Berlin, British Museum, Nigerian National Museum, Lagos
Significant event	Benin Expedition of 1897, looting
Made from material	copper alloy
Collection	British Museum, Museum of Fine Arts Boston, Ethnological Museum Berlin
Fabrication method	lost-wax casting

A Benin Bronze plaque on display insyd de British Museum

Ancestral shrine insyd Royal Palace, Benin City, 1891: de earliest-known photograph of de Oba ein compound. Note 'bronze' heads at both ends of de shrine.

De Benin Bronzes be a group of chaw thousand metal plaques den sculptures wey decorate de royal palace of de Kingdom of Benin, insyd wat now be Edo State, Nigeria. Na dem produce de metal plaques by de Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, now dey locate insyd Igun Street, dem sanso know as Igun-Eronmwon Quarters. Collectively, de objects form de best examples of Benin art wey na dem create from de fourteenth century by artists of de Edo people. De plaques, wich insyd de Edo language dem be called Ama, dey depict scenes anaa represent themes insyd de history of de kingdom. Apart from de plaques, oda sculptures insyd brass anaa bronze dey include portrait heads, jewellery, den smaller pieces.

A 16th-century Benin Bronze wey dey depict a Portuguese soldier, plus manillas insyd de background (Leipzig Museum of Ethnography)

Na sam of de dramatic sculptures date to de fourteenth century, buh de bulk of de collection dey date to de fifteenth den sixteenth centuries. Dem dey believe dat na two "Golden Ages" insyd Benin metal workmanship occurred during de reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) den of Eresoyen (1735–1750), wen na dema workmanship achieve ein highest quality.

Na British forces take chaw of de plaques den oda objects during de Benin Expedition of 1897 as na de British Empire ein control be consolidated insyd Southern Nigeria. Na dis expedition be positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys den a large number of dema African bearers insyd January 1897. Sam contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, dey argue dat na de expedition be part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, dem frame as retaliatory anaa punitive, make dem further European imperialistic den economic interests insyd Africa. Dey follow de expedition, na dem take two hundred pieces to de British Museum insyd London, while na dem take de rest to oda European museums. De British Museum hold large number plus oda notable collections insyd Germany den de United States.

Na late 19th-century scholars O. M. Dalton den Charles Hercules Read erroneously conclude dat na Benin knowledge of metallurgy cam from de Portuguese traders, wey na dem dey in contact plus Benin insyd de early modern period. Na de Kingdom of Benin be a hub of African civilization long before na Portuguese traders visit, wey na dem make bronzes insyd Benin prior to de arrival of de Portuguese. Dem dey think dem derive de Benin bronze sculpture tradition from anaa e be influenced by dat of de older nearby Kingdom of Ife insyd southwest Nigeria.

While de collection be known as de Benin Bronzes, like chaw West African "bronzes" na dem mostly make de pieces of brass of variable composition. Der sanso be pieces dem make of mixtures of bronze den brass, of wood, of ceramic, den of ivory, among oda materials. Na dem make de metal pieces by dem dey use lost-wax casting wey na dem be considered among de best African sculptures dem make dey use dis technique. Na Benin begin dey trade ivory, pepper, den slaves plus de Portuguese insyd de late 15th century wey na dem incorporate de use of manillas (brass ingots insyd de form of bracelets, dem buy from de Portuguese) as a metal source insyd dema sculpture. De manillas dema brass, dem previously suggest dem cam from The Netherlands, dem now dey think say dem cam from de Rhineland region of Germany.

Pre-1897 Significance

De time before 1897, insyd de period of de kingdom of Benin, na ebe identified as de relative independence den power, dem sanso know as de Edo Empire. De pre-1897 significance of de Benin Kingdom, wey be governed by de obas, dem sanso include control over trade den territory den dey nurture de production of bronze den ivory art. Na de kingdom sanso encounter challenges from de British secof na dem dey try make dem gain access to Benin resources.

History

Social context den creation

Plenty dramatic sculptures wey dey here na from thirteen century, and big part of di collection sef dey from fifteen and sixteen century. Dem believe say two 'Golden Ages' for Benin metal work happen during Esigie reign (around 1550) and Eresoyen reign (1735-1750), when demma workmanship work reach im highest quality.

Di king palace wey dem dey call court, e be square, and e big pass di town of Haarlem. E dey surrounded by special wall like di one wey dey round di town. Di place dey divided into plenty fine palaces, houses, and apartments for di courtiers, plus fine long square galleries...dem dey sit on wooden pillars, from top to bottom dem don cover am with cast copper wey dem engrave pictures of dia war exploits and battles on top, and dem dey keep am very clean.

Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa (1668)

Kingdom of Benin wey dey for south Nigeria from fourteen to nineteen century, dey rich full with sculptures wey get plenty materials like iron, bronze, wood, ivory and terra cotta. De Oba palace for Benin City, where dem dey make royal ancestral altars, be also where dem dey do plenty court ceremonies plus Oba, him warriors, chiefs, titleholders, priests, palace society members, foreign merchants, mercenaries, and plenty other people dey participate. De palace, wey big well well with plenty buildings and courtyards, be where you go see hundreds of brass plaques wey get images wey show people and events wey dey happen for court.

Bronze plus ivory things get plenty roles for dem rituals and court life for Benin Kingdom. Dem dey use am mainly to decorate di royal palace wey get plenty bronze works insyde. Dem dey hang am for di pillars of di palace with nails wey dem punch through. As court art, di main goal na to show off di Oba, di divine king, and him imperial power history or to pay respect to di Iyoba of Benin (di queen mother). Art for Benin Kingdom come in different styles, with bronze and brass reliefs and di heads of kings and queen mothers be di most popular ones. Bronze containers, bells, ornaments, jewelry, and ritual things too get fine qualities and originality, show di skills of di people wey make dem, but sometimes dem dey overshadow by di figurative works for bronze plus ivory carvings.

For tropical Africa, dem don sabi the lost-wax casting tori early, as dem works wey come from Benin show. When king waka comot, him successor go fit dey order say make dem create bronze head of him former. About 170 of this sculptures dey, and di oldest ones fit waka back to di twelfth century. Di Oba, or king, dey hold onto di materials wey hard to get like gold, elephant tusks, and bronze. Na dis kings make di fine Benin bronzes fit happen; so, di royal courts help plenty for di growth of sub-Saharan art. For 1939, dem find some heads wey be like the ones wey dey Kingdom of Benin for Ife, wey be the holy city of the Yoruba, and dem date am back to fourteenth plus fifteenth century. Dis finding kpeme say e support wetin dem dey talk say na artists from Ife teach Benin how to do bronze metalwork. Dem start to recognize de old technology for Benin well well when dem fit date dem sculptures to that time.

European interest plus de Benin Expedition of 1897

Na wetin Dutch artist draw wey show how Benin City be for 1686 French edition of ). Olfert Dapper's Description of Africa (1668).

Small examples of African art dey for European hands before de 19th century, but dem don already dey print books wey show Benin City and the oba palace from early 1600s. Na only as 19th century start, when colonization and missionary work begin, more African works start waka go Europe, where dem dey call am simple curiosities of 'pagan' cults. This mindset come change after de Benin Expedition for 1897.

For 1897, di vice consul general James Robert Phillips wey dey work for Niger Coast Protectorate, plus six other British people, two businessmen, translators, and 215 porters, set go Benin from small port wey dey Sapele, Nigeria. Di real reason for dem visit dey controversial. Dem talk say dem dey go negotiate with di Oba of Benin, but some historians say na reconnaissance mission dem come disguise as peaceful diplomatic team to fit topple di king (Oba) of Benin. Even though dem don give word about dem visit, dem later hear say make dem delay di journey, cause no foreigner fit enter di city while rituals dey happen; but di travellers no mind di warning and continue demma expedition. Dem ambush dem for di south of di city by Oba warriors, and only two Europeans survive di massacre wey follow.

Na illustration wey dem draw of Benin City City for 1897, by British man wey dey work for government

Di news of di wahala reach London eight days later, and dem quickly organize navy mission, wey Admiral Harry Rawson go lead. British soldiers come sack and destroy Benin City. After di attack, di winners carry all di fine artworks wey dey decorate di Royal Palace plus di houses of di big men, wey don gather over many years. According to di official story wey di British write, dem say di attack make sense because di local people ambush some peaceful mission, plus di expedition come help di people free from wahala wey dey terrorize dem. One book wey come out for 2020 talk say; 'since 1960s, historians don dey notice say the waka wey dey try push Oba Ovonramwen Nogbaisi (Overami) wey take throne for 1888 no be say dem wan revenge, but e be policy matter wey don dey long time.' Some people dey reason say this one fit create ambiguity about who get de things, wey go fit affect how dem go return de bronzes back to Benin.

Di works wey di British carry come be fine treasure full of bronze plus ivory artworks, like king heads, queen mother heads, leopard figures, bells, and plenty images wey dem carve well-well with di lost-wax casting style. For 1910, German researcher Leo Frobenius run go Africa to gather African art for him country museums. Today, e fit be say just about fifty pieces dey Nigeria but around 2,400 pieces dey for Europe plus America collections.

Division among museums

Two Benin Bronzes insyde London's British Museum

display of Benin Bronzes insyde de British Museum

Di Benin Bronzes wey dem carry as part of di spoil from di punishment waka for 1897 get plenty places wey dem go land: one side land for di private collection of plenty British officials; di Foreign and Commonwealth Office sell plenty wey later land for different European museums, mostly for Germany, den for American museums. Di quality of di pieces fine well well, na im make di prices wey dem dey sell high. Di Foreign Office give plenty bronze wall plaques to di British Museum; dis plaques show di history of di Benin Kingdom for di fifteenth plus sixteenth century.

Subsequent sales, restitutions den repatriations

Two biggest collection of Benin Bronzes dey for Ethnological Museum for Berlin and British Museum for London, plus third biggest collection dey for many museums insyde Nigeria, mostly Nigerian National Museum for Lagos.

Single-figure plaque, mid-sixteenth to seventeenth century, cast copper alloy, Dallas Museum of Art

Since Nigeria gain dem independence for 1960, dem don dey try bring back di bronzes plenty occasions. People don dey argue say di bronzes far from where dem come from. Dem return dey sign of how Africa wan bring back wetin belong to am. Di artefacts don turn talk for international level for restitution matter, like de Elgin Marbles, plus e dey help change wetin people think about repatriation.

From 1950, British Museum don sell over 30 Benin Bronzes give Nigerian government. That time, the museum curator, Hermann Braunholtz, talk say, even though dem make am one by one, out of 203 plaques wey dem collect in 1898, 30 be duplicates; since dem be same thing, he decide say dem be superfluous for de museum. Sales reduce for 1972, den de museum African art specialist talk say he dey sorry for am.

For 1953, Sotheby's sell Benin Bronze head for £5,500 when di highest wey dem sell bifo as £780. For 1968, Christie's sell one Benin head wey police officer find for him neighbor greenhouse for £21,000. For 1984, Sotheby's auction one plaque wey show musician; dem value am between £25,000 and £35,000 for di auction catalog. For 2015, dem sell one Benin Bronze head to private collector for di record fee of £10 million.

For 2018, dem agree say Benin Dialogue Group go team up with British government to bring back Benin Bronzes make dem fit do small exhibition for new Benin Royal Museum wey dey Edo State. Dis group get people from different international museums, Royal Court of Benin, Edo State government, and Nigerian National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM). For 2015, Mark Walker carry some Benin Bronzes come back wey him grandfather take when dem dey fight for Benin Kingdom; Prince Edun Akenzua welcome am for Benin City. For March 2021, University of Aberdeen agree say dem go return one bronze head of Oba wey dem buy for auction since 1957. De return complete for handover ceremony wey dem do on 28 October 2021.

De signing of a 2022 agreement insyde Cologne, Germany, to transfer de Benin Bronzes of de city to Nigeria

For April 2021, German government talk say dem go bring back di 'looted' Benin Bronzes wey dey Germany public collections by 2022. Hartmut Dorgerloh, wey dey director of Humboldt Forum wey get Ethnological Museum for Berlin, talk for press event say di plan wey dem get to show di bronzes for new museum complex for Berlin na 'no fit happen again'. Also for di same April 2021, Church of England promise say dem go return two Benin bronzes wey dem give as gifts to di old Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Runcie for 1982. Dis bronzes na to add to di future Benin Royal Museum collection. Dem Horniman Museum for South London talk say dem dey think about legal matter for repatriation and restitution of 49 works wey dem get from Benin City, 15 of dem na Benin Bronzes.

As British Museum dey continue dey refuse to give back di looted Benin bronzes, di Iyase (traditional prime minister) of Benin Kingdom show di biggest bronze plaque wey e don make so far on 30 July 2021. Di plaque get over 2 tons of brass and e come from one of di grandpikin of Iyase Lukas Osarobo Zeickner-Okoro. Di title na The Return of Oba Ewuare, to represent di belief for reincarnation and di restart of di Benin Bronze Age under Oba Ewuare II. Dem offer di piece to di British Museum in return for di bronzes wey dem hold there.

For October 2021, Jesus College talk say dem go return sculpture wey dem dey call Okukor, back go Naija, after di students show say e get historical meaning as loot wey dem carry comot. Di statue don dey out of display since 2016 when dem start to dey cry make dem bring am back; after di Legacy of Slavery Working Party from di college investigate am, dem find out say di statue dem carry am come from Benin court before dem gift am to di college by one student papa for 1905. For February 2022, dem receive Okukor and di bronze wey University of Aberdeen return for royal palace for Benin City from Oba of Benin, Ewuare II. For December 2022, University of Cambridge transfer dem own more than 100 Benin artefacts from their Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology go NCMM. One person wey dey talk for di museum talk say some pieces go stay for Cambridge 'on extended loan' make sure say 'dis west African civilization still dey show for di museum display, plus for school groups teaching'. As dis February 2025, di statues never reach Nigeria yet.

For November 2021, Metropolitan Museum of Art carry two Bronze plaques from sixteenth-century, Warrior Chief and Junior Court Official, go give NCMM. No be say dem transfer am because of repatriation talk, because dem get about 160 Benin Bronzes for demma collection.

For January 2022, Great North Museum: Hancock for Newcastle, England, gree say dem go return one Benin Bronze stave go Nigeria. For March 2022, Smithsonian Institution shout say dem go carry 39 bronzes back, dem go show am for National Museum wey dey insyde Benin City. Smithsonian National Museum of African Art don sign over 29 Benin bronzes to NCMM on 11 October 2022, with Nigerian leaders plus culture people dey there; as dem dey do am, National Gallery of Art don return one Benin bronze too.

For July 2022, Germany talk say dem go hand over 1,100 artifacts wey dem hold for Linden Museum wey dey Stuttgart, Humboldt Forum for Berlin, Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum for Cologne, Museum am Rothenbaum for Hamburg, plus the State Ethnographic Collections of Saxony. Dem negotiate how each item go return between German museums and Naija government, but dem go still keep some objects for Germany like long-term loan. On 28 November 2022, Horniman Museum for London do ceremony wey dem go unconditionally transfer ownership of dem Benin Bronzes back to Nigeria without any wahala.

Some months later, on 23 March 2023, the outgoing president Muhammadu Buhari talk say all di things wey dem carry come back from di Benin Expedition, even di ones wey go still come back, na for di Royal Family for Benin City. So, e turn di bronzes to private property. Oba Ewuare II later come announce sey dem go fit put di bronzes for museum wey go dey close to him palace. As e be, di Museum of West African Art, wey dem select to show di bronzes and German government dey support small small, open for 2024 but no bronzes dey for dia collection. European journalists come note sey di way wey di German government take return di Benin Bronzes no dey enter Buhari eye. Swiss ethnologist Brigitta Hauser-Schäublin conclude say Germany's 2022 restitution policy no waka go nowhere.

For 19 June 2025, Dutch government go return group of 113 bronzes wey dey their national collection plus six more from Rotterdam collection, na im be di biggest return of Benin antiques wey link to di 1897 British punishment expedition" to date.

Opposition

For August 2022, one group wey dey fight for African-American slavery reparations, di Restitution Study Group, don petition make dem no return Benin Bronzes come back. Dem talk say before, African people dey help sell captives join di Atlantic slave trade, and dem suggest say di pikin of enslave Africans suppose get part ownership for di Benin Bronzes wey dey Western museums. Dem file petition to stop Smithsonian Institution from returning di bronzes for 2022, say di bronzes dey connect to di descendants of enslave people for America because dem forge am with metal wey dem trade for African slaves, and if dem carry di bronzes go, e go take away di chance wey Americans get to feel demma heritage. Di petition deny am, plus all di appeal even Supreme Court no fit change di decision.

Digital Benin online platform

For November 2022, Dem launch Digital Benin online database wey plenty African and Western museums support. Digital Benin dey show over 130 institutions for 20 countries wey get Benin cultural heritage for their collection. Di site dey display info about di specs, location, and where dem get more than 5,000 artefacts, wey de include maps, high-resolution pictures, plus titles of di works for English plus Edo.

De works

A Benin Bronze showing de Benin's Oba palace - British Museum

De Benin Bronzes dey more real pass most African art for dat time. Dem bronze surface dey show we how light and metal fit work together. De heads get features wey dey big pass normal, with large ears, nose, and lips wey dem shape well well. Wetin be big thing for this work na how dem sabi use metal skill for lost-wax casting. Di descendants dem wey come after dis artisans still dey respect Igue-Igha, wey na di person wey bring di art of casting come Kingdom of Benin.

Another big thing wey dey for dis work na di exclusivity: property no dey for everybody, na only some social classes fit get am, e show say society for Kingdom of Benin dey very stratified. Normally, na only di king fit own bronze and ivory things, but e fit allow big men make dem use dem, like masks and cuffs wey dem make with bronze and ivory. Coral too na royal material. Coral neck rings dey show nobility, plus na only di Oba fit give people permission make dem use am.

Themes

Benin Bronze insyde de Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde München depicting a warrior or noble

Di rectangular plaques dey come for two styles. One style, di long sides dey turn back small, make dem get small edge wey dem don decorate with guilloché pattern. Di other style, wey be narrow pass, di turned-back edges no dey, and di background design for di plaque just stop like sey dem cut am. Dis variations fit show di size and shape of di palace pillars and how dem arrange di plaques for dem. Generally, di plaques dey about 1⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) thick.

Di background wey dey front plenty plaques get foliate patterns wey get one to four leaves inside, dem dey call am ebe-ame, or di 'river leaf' design. Di leaves dem dey use am for healing rites by priestesses wey serve Olokun, di god of di sea.

Some of di reliefs show important battles wey happen for sixteenth century wars; but plenty of dem show big men wey dey wear ceremonial cloth. Most of di plaques get some figures wey no dey move, sometimes alone, sometimes in pairs, or small groups wey dey arrange around one main figure. Plenty of di figures wey dey inside di plaques fit only be recognized by wetin dem wear and di emblems wey show their rank and wetin dem dey do for di court, but we no fit know who dem be individually. Even though some people don try link some of di figures to real historical people, no be everything wey dem talk don confirm well. For some cases, we even no sabi di full roles of some figures, wey we no fit figure out properly.

A Benin Bronze depicting three Benin warriors

Di bronze heads na dem dey use for ancestral altars. Dem dey also serve as base for engraved elephant tusks, wey dem go fit put inside di heads. Di commemorative heads of di king or di queen mother no be individual portraits, even though dem dey show some stylized naturalism. Na archetypical depictions dem be; di style for dia design change over di years, same way di royal insignia dey change too. Di elephant tusks wey get fine carvings, wey fit don start as decorative element for di eighteenth century, dey show different scenes from di reign of dead king.

For new Oba to take over, e be must to set altar wey go honor im predecessor. People sabi say person head na where di supernatural guide dey, to make sense well. Oba head dey very holy, cos all Edo people wey dey depend on im wisdom for survival, security, and prosperity. Every year, during festival wey go boost di mystical power of di Oba, di king dey do offerings inside dem sacred places, wey dey important for im reign to continue. Di way dem bronze heads dey different na wetin make am important for Beninese art that it constitutes de primary scientific basis for establishing a chronology.

Di leopard na one symbol we dey show for plenty Benin Bronzes, sekof e be di animal wey represent di Oba. Anoda pattern wey dey come back na di royal triad: di Oba for di middle, with two paddy men by im side, e dey show di support of di people wey di king trust to help am rule.

Some people talk say, di Benin artists fit don get inspiration from wetin Portuguese bring come, like di European shining books, small ivory boxes wey get carved tops from India, and di small painting wey dem draw for India. Di quatrefoil 'river leaves' fit come from European or Islamic art, but Babatunde Lawal show us wetin dey happen for southern Nigeria art wey fit back im theory say di plaques na original from Benin.

British archaeologist wey dey study culture, Dan Hicks, talk about how dem dey chop Benin Bronzes and how dem dey show am for museums wey dey all over di world. For im book, im talk say di looting no be just 'historical incident of reception', but na 'ongoing brutality'. E also mention say di total artefacts wey dem carry come from Benin reach like 10,000 bronzes, ivories plus plenty others. Hicks talk say plenty of di looted Benin tins dey for small museums and university museums for UK instead of di big big collections like British Museum, Royal Collection plus de Victoria plus Albert Museum.

Influence on Contemporary African Art

Some artifacts wey dem thief from Benin kingdom for 1897, get big impact for African art. Dem artifacts dey famous for their intricate craftsmanship plus importance for history.

Dem impact no go fit only dey based on how e look, culture wey dem represent, and di way dem show African artifacts broadly.

Technique

Bronze casting using de lost wax method. De molten metal dem poure am into de mould.

Even though dem dey call di works Benin Bronzes, e no be same material. Plenty of dem be Brass, wey analysis don show say na alloy of copper, zinc plus lead in different ratio. Some dey non-metallic, wey be wood, ceramic, ivory, leather or cloth.

Dem wooden things dey make am for one sharp process. E start with tree trunk or branch, den dem go carve am direct. Di artist go take di block of wood get di final shape of di work. As e be tradition to use fresh cut wood for carvings, when dem finish di piece, dem go burn di surface small so e no go crack when e dey dry. Dis one too make dem fit do artworks wey get plenty colors, wey dem go chop knife plus natural paint wey dem make with vegetable oil or palm oil. Dis kind grease wey dem dey make near smoke for home, e give di wooden sculptures one look like rusty metal.

Di figures wey dey show for di bronzes na wetin dem cast for relief, with plenty details wey dem carve for di wax model. Di artists wey dey work for bronze dey organize as one kind guild under royal orders, and dem dey live for one special area for di palace wey Oba dey control direct. Di works wey dem make use lost-wax casting need plenty special skill. Di quality dey better when di king strong well well, e go fit gather plenty specialists to help am.

E be like say di oldest Benin metal work wey get bronze na from di twelfth century. As per di tradition, di lost-wax casting wey dem sabi, na di son of di Oni, wey be di king for Ife, carry am come give dem. Di story talk say he teach di Benin metal workers how to cast bronze with di lost-wax method for di thirteenth century. Dem Benin artisans sharp di technique well-well, so dem fit cast plaques wey dey only one-eight inch (3 mm) thick, wey pass wetin di Renaissance masters dey do insyde Europe.

Reception

16th-century brass plaque, depicting an Oba, two kneeling attendants, plus two Portuguese figures

One bronze from sixteen century wey show Oba with white people, e show for A History of de World in 100 Objects, wey be radio programme wey start for 2010 as BBC plus British Museum work together; dem also publish am as book.

Repatriation from de Netherlands

Na Nigeria collect 119 bronze from Netherlands after dem dey jam for several meetings. Dis return of di Benin Bronzes na part of di plan wey di Netherlands government get for cultural restitution and justice for history. Di handover ceremony happen for 21st June 2025, with di Minister for Arts, Culture, and Creative Economy; di Director General of di National Commission of Museums plus Monuments; Benin Chiefs; and plenty other cultural plus heritage professionals insyde Nigeria. Di bronzes wey dem carry come go land for Benin City go meet di Oba of Benin, den go put am for gallery wey dey come through partnership between di museum commission plus Coronation Group.

Check am too

• Art of the Kingdom of Benin
• Museum of West African Art
• Benin Dialogue Group
• Looted art
• Okukor, a bronze formerly at Jesus College, Cambridge

Bibliography

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External links

• Digital Benin online platform
• Benin Plaques, Museum number Af1898,0115.23, Collection Online, British Museum
• Royal Art of Benin: The Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1992 catalog)