History of Sierra Leone

history of Sierra Leone

history of a country or state

Facet give	Sierra Leone
Country	Sierra Leone

Na Sierra Leone first cam be inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe dem know to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolate de region from oda West African cultures, wey e cam be a refuge for peoples wey dey escape violence. Na dem name Sierra Leone by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, wey map de region insyd 1462. Na de Freetown estuary provide a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, wey e gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade.

Insyd de mid-16th century, na de Mane people invade, subjugate nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, wey dem militarise Sierra Leone. Na de Mane soon blend plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, wey dem sell chaw captives to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade get a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as na dis trade flourish insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts wen na dem abolish de trade insyd 1807. Na British abolitionists organise a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown,wey dis cam be de capital of British West Africa. Na a naval squadron base der make e intercept slave ships, wey de colony quickly grow as dem release Liberated Africans, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers wey na dem fight give Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles anaa Krios.

During de colonial era, na de British den Creoles increase demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce no go be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone wich na dem declare to be dema protectorate, wey dey lead to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, na der dema dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from dema chiefs.

Na Sierra Leone play a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which na previously be governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 wey e cam be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence be marked by autocratic governments anaa civil war.

Early history

Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes.

Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads.

European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation Serra Lyoa (Lioness Mountain).

At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold.

European contact (15th century)

Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people.

Slavery

Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, get a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries.

There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it.

When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:

a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.

According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed.

De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery.

Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:

De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.

For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a rounde, e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.

Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop:

1. Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour.
2. There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.

There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements:

1. De Europeans provided an example for imitation.
2. Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter.
3. Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force.
4. De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force.

Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:

Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.

Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called pawning; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:

Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called pawning; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:

A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.

Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."

Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.

Mane invasions (16th century)

De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland.

There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group.

By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders.

Aftermath

De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:

No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.

He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages anaa towns wey dey surround am."

After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period.

De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes.

Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes.

Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de Gbeni, e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de Sande be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de Humoi which regulates sex, den de Njayei den de Wunde. De Kpa be a healing-arts collegium.

Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.

1600–1787

By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 na e close, although priests occasionally visited.

Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible.

De Europeans make payments, called Cole, for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War.

During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, Bai being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east.

Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone.

During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula.

Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River.

De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba.

Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (mansa meaning king) become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne.

Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America.

De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century.

De Province of Freedom (1787–1789)

Conception of de Province of Freedom (1787)

Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London.

De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London".

Establishment, destruction den re-establishment (1789)

De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789.

Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987.

After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company.

Freetown Colony (1792–1808)

Conception of de Freetown settlement (1791)

De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America.

Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)

De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing:

Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb

Wake! every heart den every tongue'

To praise de Saviour ein name

De day of Jubilee be come;

Return ye ransomed sinners home

On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street.

On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants.

Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)

Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town.

De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia.

Abolition den slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)

Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'.

Formation of de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)

De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: Krio people) be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown.

Colonial era (1808–1961)

Establishment of de British Crown Colony (1808)

Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars.

Intervention den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)

Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions.

Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones.

When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police.

De British develop a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies.

Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century

Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent.

Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers.

Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda."

More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge.

Establishment of de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)

Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it.

Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British.

Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5s to 10s be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable.

During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown.

Hut Tax War of 1898

Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders.

Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November.

De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh.

Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956)

Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa.

After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them.

They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL).

African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population.

Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy.

Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs.

Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence.

Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority.

Sierra Leone insyd World War II

Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships.

1960 Independence Conference

On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman.

On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP).

Opposition to de SLPP government

Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base.

Early independence (1961–1968)

Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)

On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University.

Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces.

Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)

Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration.

Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group

Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections.

Three military coups (1967–1968)

De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister.

Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985)

Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown.

Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces.

After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency.

Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens.

On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government.

Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats.

Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government.

An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition.

Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats.

Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers.

De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party.

Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986.

Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion.

Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy.

Momoh government den RUF rebellion (1985–1991)

President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force.

De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989.

Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power.

Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC.

Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone.

Civil war (1991–2002)

De brutal civil war plus neighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance.

At dis time, de Momoh government be crumbling. Several senior government officials dey resign to form opposition parties, while there be suspicions dat President Momoh no be serious about political reform. Abuses of power dey continue den de APC be alleged to have been hoarding arms den planning a violent campaign against de opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. De state have been unable to play civil servants, leading to de looting of government property den a population of aimless youth when schools be closed.

NPRC Junta (1992–1996)

On 29 April 1992, twenty-five-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser lead a group of young Sierra Leone Army officers—wey include Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Seargent Solomon Musa, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Komba Mondeh, Captain Julius Maada Bio den Captain Komba Kambo—from demma barracks insyd Kailahun District den launch a military coup insyd Freetown, which send President Momoh into exile insyd Guinea. De young soldiers established de National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) plus Strasser as ein chairman den Head of State of de country. Captain Solomon Musa, a close friend of Strasser den one of de leaders of de coup, become de deputy leader of de NPRC Junta. De coup be largely popular because e promise to bring peace, but de NPRC Junta immediately suspended de constitution, ban all political parties, limited freedom of speech den freedom of de press den enact a rule-by-decree policy, insyd which soldiers be granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial. De NPRC establish a Supreme Council, consisting of de highest-ranking soldiers insyd de Junta government.

On de same day de NPRC Junta take power, one of de coup leaders, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, be assassinated—reportedly by Major Sim Turay, de head of Sierra Leone Military Intelligence, den a close ally of de deposed president. A heavily armed military manhunt took place across Sierra Leone to find Turay den odas suspected to have participated insyd de assassination, forcing Turay to flee to Guinea.

De NPRC Junta fight de RUF rebels, recapture most of de RUF-held territories, den push de rebels back to de border plus Liberia. De NPRC Junta maintain relations plus de Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) den strengthen support for Sierra Leone–based ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) troops fighting insyd Liberia.

Insyd December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against de NPRC administration of Strasser be foiled; e dey aim at freeing from detention Colonel Yahya Kanu, Lt-Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya den former inspector-general of police Bambay Kamara. Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura den some junior army officers be identified as being behind de coup. Seventeen soldiers be executed, wey include Bangura, Kanu den Dumbuya. Several prominent members of de Momoh government who have been insyd detention at de Pa Demba Road prison, wey include former inspector-general of police Bambay Kamara sana be executed.

On 5 July 1994, deputy NPRC leader Solomon Musa be arrested den sent into exile insyd Guinea. Musa be accused by Strasser, on de advice of high-ranking NPRC soldiers, dat he have become too powerful den be a threat to Strasser. Musa, who be a close ally den childhood friend of Strasser, deny de allegation den claim ein accusers be de threat. Strasser replace Musa as deputy NPRC chairman plus Captain Julius Maada Bio, den immediately promote him to brigadier.

Due to internal divisions between soldiers loyal to Musa den those who support Strasser ein decision to oust him, de NPRC ein campaign against de RUF become ineffectual. More den more of de country fall to RUF fighters, den by 1994 de RUF hold much of de diamond-rich Eastern Province den be at de edge of Freetown. Insyd response, de NPRC hire several hundred mercenaries from de private firm Executive Outcomes. Within a month, they have driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone ein borders den cleared de RUF from de Kono diamond-producing areas of Sierra Leone.

On 16 January 1996, after about four years insyd power, Strasser be arrested by ein own bodyguards insyd a coup lead by Bio den dey back by many high-ranking soldiers of de NPRC junta. Strasser be immediately flown into exile insyd Conakry, Guinea. Bio stated insyd a public broadcast dat ein support for returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elect civilian government den ein commitment to ending de civil war be ein motivations for de coup.

Return to civilian rule den first Kabbah Presidency (1996–1997)

Promises of a return to civilian rule be fulfilled by Bio, who handed power over to Ahmad Tejan Kabbah of de Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), after de conclusion of elections insyd early 1996. President Kabbah take power plus a great promise of ending de civil war, open dialogues plus de then-defeated RUF den invite RUF-leader Sankoh for peace negotiations, signing de Abidjan Peace Accord on 30 November 1996.

Insyd January 1997, under international pressure, de Kabbah government ended demma contract plus Executive Outcomes even though a neutral monitoring force have not arrived. Dis dey create an opportunity for de RUF to regroup den renew military attacks. Sankoh be arrested insyd Nigeria, den by de end of March 1997 de peace accord have collapsed.

AFRC junta (1997–1998)

On 25 May 1997, a group of seventeen soldiers insyd de Sierra Leone army leda by Corporal Tamba Gborie freed den armed 600 prisoners from de Pademba Road Prison insyd Freetown. One of de prisoners, Major General Johnny Paul Koroma, emerge as de leader of de group. Calling einself de Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), de group launch a military coup den send President Kabbah into exile insyd Guinea. Koroma become head of state, plus Gborie as deputy-in-command of de AFRC. Koroma suspend de constitution, ban demonstrations, closed all private radio stations, den grant unlimited powers to soldiers.

Koroma invited de RUF rebels to join ein coup. Facing little resistance from army loyalists, five thousand rag-tag rebel fighters overran de capital. Koroma appeal to Nigeria for de release of Foday Sankoh, appointing de absent leader to de position of deputy chairman of de AFRC. De joint AFRC/RUF coalition government then proclaim de war have been won, den give de soldiers den rebels unlimited powers insyd a great wave of looting den reprisals against civilians insyd Freetown (dubbed "Operation Pay Yourself" by some of ein participants).

De AFRC Junta government no be recognized by any country—whereas President Kabbah ein government insyd exile insyd Conakry, Guinea be recognized by de United Nations, de African Union, de United States, de United Kingdom den ECOWAS as de legitimate government of Sierra Leone.

De Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from de Mende ethnic group under de command of Deputy Defence Minister Samuel Hinga Norman, dey remain loyal to President Kabbah den defended de Southern part Sierra Leone from de rebels. De Kamajors den rebels, wey include de RUF soldiers, regularly fight each oda, den human rights violations be committed by both sides.

ECOWAS, lead by Nigerian Head of State Sani Abacha, create a military force to defeat de AFRC/RUF junta insyd Freetown den to reinstate President Kabbah ein government. Many West-African countries send troops to reinstate de Kabbah Government, assembling a force largely from Nigeria but sana include soldiers from Guinea, Ghana, Togo, Gambia, Mali, Ivory Coast den Senegal.

After 10 months insydoffice, de AFRC junta government be ousted den driven out of Freetown by de Nigeria-led ECOMOG forces. De democratically elected government of President Kabbah be reinstated insyd March 1998. Koroma fled to de rebel strongholds insyd de east of de country.

President Kabbah ein return den de end of civil war (1998–2001)

Kabbah return to power plus Albert Joe Demby as vice-president. President Kabbah name Solomon Berewa as attorney general den Sama Banya as foreign minister. On 31 July 1998, President Kabbah disbanded de Sierra Leone military den introduce a proposal for a new military. On 12 October 1998, twenty-five soldiers—wey include Gborie, Brigadier Hassan Karim Conteh, Colonel Samuel Francis Koroma, Major Kula Samba den Colonel Abdul Karim Sesay—be executed by firing squad after they be convicted by court martial for orchestrating de 1997 coup. AFRC leader Johnny Paul Koroma be tried insyd absentia den sentenced to death.

ECOMOG be unable to achieve a tactical victory over de RUF, den de international community promote peace negotiations. De Lomé Peace Accord be signed on 7 July 1999 to end de civil war, granting amnesty for all combatants, den controversially granting Sankoh de position of vice president den chairman of de commission dat overseew de diamond mines. Insyd October 1999, de United Nations established de UNAMSIL peacekeeping force to help restore order den disarm de rebels. De first of de 6,000-member force begin arriving insyd December, den de UN Security Council vote insyd February 2000 to increase de force to 11,000, den later to 13,000. Insyd May, when nearly all Nigerian forces dey leave den UN forces be trying to disarm de RUF insyd eastern Sierra Leone, de RUF take over 500 peacekeepers hostage, some of de rebels using captured weapons den armoured personnel carriers to advance on de capital. De 75-day hostage crisis result insyd more fighting between de RUF den government forces as UN troops launch Operation Khukri to end de siege. De Operation be successful plus Indian den British Special Forces being de main contingents.

De situation insyd de country deteriorated to such an extent dat British troops be deployed insyd Operation Palliser, originally simply to evacuate foreign nationals. However, de British exceed demma original mandate, den take full military action to finally defeat de rebels den restore order. De British be de catalyst for de cease-fire dat ended de civil war. Elements of de British Army, together plus administrators den politicians, remain insyd Sierra Leone, helping to train de new armed forces, improve de infrastructure of de country den administer financial den material aid. Tony Blair, de prime minister of Britain at de time of de British intervention, be regarded as a hero by de people of Sierra Leone, many of whom are keen for more British involvement. Sierra Leoneans have been described as "The World's Most Resilient People". Insyd 2004, Parliament pass a Local Government Act of 2004 which re-introduce local government councils back to Sierra Leone after thirty years. On 4 August 2006, insyd a broadcast to de nation, President Kabbah announced dat 2007 presidential den parliamentary elections will be held on 28 July 2007.

Between 1991 den 2001, about 50,000 people be killed insyd Sierra Leone ein civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people be forced from demma homes den many become refugees insyd Guinea den Liberia. Insyd 2001, UN forces move into rebel-held areas den begin to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, President Kabbah declare de civil war officially over. Insyd May 2002, Kabbah be re-elected president by an overwhelming majority. By 2004, de disarmament process be complete. Sanso insyd 2004, a UN-backed war crimes court begin holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of de war. Insyd December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces depart from Sierra Leone.

2002 to present

Kabbah re-elected (2002–2007)

Elections be held insyd May 2002. President Kabbah be re-elected, den de SLPP win a majority of de parliamentary seats. Insyd June 2003, de UN ban on de sale of Sierra Leone diamonds expire den no be renewed. De UN disarmament den rehabilitation program for Sierra Leone ein fighters be completed insyd February 2004, by which time more than 70,000 former-combatants have been helped. UN forces return primary responsibility for security insyd de area around de capital to Sierra Leone ein police den armed forces insyd September 2004; e be de last part of de country to be turned over. Some UN peacekeepers remain to assist de Sierra Leone government until de end of 2005.

De 1999 Lomé Accord called for de establishment of a Truth den Reconciliation Commission, which will provide a forum for both victims den perpetrators of human rights violations during de conflict to tell demma stories den facilitate genuine reconciliation. Subsequently, de Sierra Leonean Government den de UN agreed to establish de Special Court for Sierra Leone to try those who "bear de greatest responsibility for de commission of crimes against humanity, war crimes den serious violations of international humanitarian law, as well as crimes under relevant Sierra Leonean law within de territory of Sierra Leone since 30 November 1996." Both de Truth den Reconciliation Commission den de Special Court begin operating insyd de summer of 2002. De Truth den Reconciliation Commission released ein Final Report to de government insyd October 2004. Insyd June 2005, de government issue a White Paper on de commission ein final report which accept sam but not all of ein recommendations. Members of civil society groups dismissed de government ein response as too vague den continue to criticize de government for ein failure to follow-up on de report ein recommendations.

Insyd March 2003, de Special Court for Sierra Leone issue ein first indictments. Foday Sankoh, already insyd custody, be indicted, along plus notorious RUF field commander Sam "Mosquito" Bockarie, Johnny Paul Koroma, den Hinga Norman (de Minister of Interior den former head of de Civil Defence Force), among several odas. Norman be arrested when de indictments be announced, while Bockarie den Koroma remain insyd hiding. On 5 May 2003, Bockarie be killed insyd Liberia, allegedly on orders from President Charles Taylor, who feared Bockarie ein testimony before de Special Court. Koroma sana be rumoured to have been killed, though ein death dey remain unconfirmed. Two of de accused, Foday Sankoh den Hinga Norman, have die while incarcerated. On 25 March 2006, plus de election of Liberian President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo permit de transfer of Charles Taylor—who have been living insyd exile insyd de Nigerian coastal town of Calobar—to Sierra Leone for prosecution. Two days later, Taylor attempt to flee Nigeria, but he be apprehended by Nigerian authorities den transferred to Freetown under UN guard.

Koroma ein government (2007–2018)

Insyd August 2007, Sierra Leone hold presidential den parliamentary elections. They have a good turnout den be initially judged by official observers to be "free, fair den credible". However, no presidential candidate win de 50% plus one vote majority stipulated insyd de constitution on de first round of voting. A run-off election be held insyd September 2007, den Ernest Bai Koroma, de candidate of de APC, be elected president den sworn insyd de same day. Insyd ein inauguration address at de national stadium insyd Freetown, President Koroma dey promise to fight corruption den de mismanagement of de country ein resources.

By 2007, there have been an increase insyd de number of drug cartels, many from Colombia, using Sierra Leone as a base to ship drugs to Europe. E be feared dat dis might lead to increased corruption den violence den turn de country, like neighbouring Guinea-Bissau, into a narco state. President Koroma quickly amend de existing legislation against drug trafficking—inherited at independence insyd 1961—to address de international concerns, increasing punishment for offenders insyd terms of prohibitive fines, lengthier prison terms, den provision for extradition of offenders want elsewhere, wey include de United States.

Insyd 2008, an aircraft carrying almost 700 kg of cocaine be caught at Freetown ein airport den 19 people, wey include customs officials, be arrested, den de minister for transport be suspended.

Insyd 2014, de country be impacted by de 2014 Ebola virus epidemic insyd Sierra Leone.

Julius Maada Bio presidency (2018-present)

Insyd 2018, Sierra Leone hold a general election. President Koroma, who have served maximum two terms, no be able to seek re-election. De presidential election, insyd which neither candidate dey reach de required threshold of 55%, go to a second round of voting, insyd which Julius Maada Bio be elected plus 51% of de vote against de candidate of ruling All People ein Congress (APC). On 4 April 2018, opposition candidate Julius Maada Bio of Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), be sworn insyd as president.

References

Bibliography

• Tratado breve dos Rios de Guine (1594) by Andre Alvares de Almada; J. Boulegue; P. E. H. Hair
• The Journal of African History, Vol. 26, No. 2/3 (1985), p. 275
• Arthur Abraham, Mende Government and Politics under Colonial Rule. Freetown, 1978.
• Martin Kilson. Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; 1966.
• Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone. London, 1962.
• Kenneth Little, The Mende of Sierra Leone. London, 1967.
• Massing, Andrew (1985). "The Mane, the Decline of Mali, and Mandinka Expansion towards the South Windward Coast" (PDF). Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 25 (97): 21–55. doi:10.3406/cea.1985.2184. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• M. McCulloch, The Peoples of Sierra Leone Protectorate. London; n.d., but approximately 1964.
• Person, Yves (1971). "Review: Ethnic Movements and Acculturation in Upper Guinea since the Fifteenth Century". African Historical Studies. 4 (3): 669–689. doi:10.2307/216536. JSTOR 216536. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Walter Rodney, "African Slavery and Other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave Trade". The Journal of African History, vol 7, num 3 (1966).
• Rodney, Walter (1967). "A Reconsideration of the Mane Invasions of Sierra Leone". The Journal of African History. 8 (2): 219–46. doi:10.1017/S0021853700007039. JSTOR 179481. S2CID 163011504. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
• Akintola J.G. Wyse. H. C. Bankole-Bright and Politics in Colonial Sierra Leone, 1919-1958. Cambridge, 1950.

Read further

• Hargreaves, J. D. "The Establishment of the Sierra Leone Protectorate and the Insurrection of 1898." Cambridge Historical Journal 12#1 (1956): 56–80. online.
• David Harris, Civil War and Democracy in West Africa: Conflict Resolution, Elections and Justice in Sierra Leone and Liberia, I.B. Tauris, 2012

External links

• Sierra Leone: Information on the 1997 coup d'etat, ECOMOG harassment of civilians, and the current situation in Sierra Leone by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 5 January 2000
• Text of the 1999 Lomé Peace Accord