History of science and technology in Africa

History of science and technology in Africa

aspect of history

Africa get de world ein oldest record of human technological achievement: de oldest surviving stone tools insyd de world have been found insyd eastern Africa, den later evidence for tool production by humans ein hominin ancestors has been found across West, Central, Eastern den Southern Africa. De history of science den technology insyd Africa since then has, however, dey receive relatively little attention compare to oda regions of de world, despite notable African developments insyd mathematics, metallurgy, architecture, den oda fields.

Early humans

De Great Rift Valley of Africa provides critical evidence for the evolution of early hominins. De earliest tools insyd de world can be found there as well:

• An unidentified hominin, possibly Australopithecus afarensis or Kenyanthropus platyops, created stone tools dating to 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi insyd de Turkana Basin, eastern Africa.
• Homo habilis, residing insyd eastern Africa, dey develop anoda early toolmaking industry, de Oldowan, around 2.3 million years ago.
• Homo erectus develop de Acheulean stone tool industry, specifically hand-axes, at 1.5 million years ago. Dis tool industry spread to de Middle East den Europe around 800,000 to 600,000 years ago. Homo erectus sanso begin dey use fire.
• Homo sapiens, anaa modern humans, create bone tools den backed blades around 90,000 to 60,000 years ago, insyd southern den eastern Africa. De use of bone tools den backed blades eventually become characteristic of Later Stone Age tool industries. De first appearance of abstract art be during de Middle Stone Age, however. De oldest abstract art insyd de world be a shell necklace dated to 82,000 years ago from de Cave of Pigeons in Taforalt, eastern Morocco. De second oldest abstract art den de oldest rock art be found at Blombos Cave insyd South Africa, dated to 77,000 years ago. There be evidences dat stone age humans around 100,000 years ago have an elementary knowledge of chemistry insyd Southern Africa, den dat they used a specific recipe to create a liquefy ochre-rich mixture. According to Henshilwood, "Dis no be just a chance mixture, it be early chemistry. E dey suggest conceptual den probably cognitive abilities which be de equivalent of modern humans".

Education

Northern Africa den de Nile Valley

Insyd 295 BCE, de Library of Alexandria be founded by Greeks insyd Egypt. It be considered de largest library insyd de classical world.

Al-Azhar University, founded insyd 970~972 as a madrasa, be de chief centre of Arabic literature den Sunni Islamic learning insyd de world. De oldest degree-granting university insyd Egypt after de Cairo University, ein establishment date may be considered 1961 when non-religious subjects be added to ein curriculum.

West Africa den de Sahel

Three madrasas or Islamic schools exist insyd Mali during de country ein "golden age" from de 14th to de 16th centuries: Sankore Madrasah, Sidi Yahya Mosque, den Djinguereber Mosque, all insyd Timbuktu. De schools consist of independent scholars who gIve instruction to individuals or small groups of students, PLU special lectures sometimes given insyd de mosques. There be no overall school administration or prescribe course of study, den libraries consist of individual private collections of manuscripts. Scholars be drawn from de city ein wealthiest families, den instruction be explicitly religious. De main subjects study by advanced scholars den students be Qur'anic studies, Arabic language, Muhammad, theology, mysticism, den law.

Insyd de 16th century, Timbuktu sana house as many as 150–180 maktabs (Qur'anic schools), where basic reading den recitation of de Qur'an be taught. Dese schools get an estimated peak enrollment of 4,000–5,000 pupils, wey include pupils from de surrounding areas.

Within West Africa Timbuktu be a major center of book copying, religious groups, de Islamic sciences, den arts. Books be imported from North Africa den paper be imported from Europe. Books/manuscripts were written primarily insyd Arabic.

De most famous scholar from Timbuktu be Ahmad Baba (1556–1627), who write primarily about Islamic law.

Astronomy

Three types of calendars can be found insyd Africa: lunar, solar, den stellar. Most African calendars be a combination of de three. African calendars include de Akan calendar, Egyptian calendar, Berber calendar, Ethiopian calendar, Igbo calendar, Yoruba calendar, Shona calendar, Somali calendar, Swahili calendar, Xhosa calendar, Borana calendar, den Luba calendar den Ankole calendar.

Northern Africa and the Nile Valley

A stone circle located insyd de Nabta Playa basin may be one of de world ein oldest known archeoastronomical devices. Built by de ancient Nubians about 4800 BCE, de device may have approximately marked de summer solstice.

Since de first modern measurements of de precise cardinal orientations of de Egyptian pyramids be taken by Flinders Petrie, various astronomical methods have been proposed as to how these orientations be originally established. Ancient Egyptians may have observed, for example, de positions of two stars insyd de Plough / Big Dipper which be known to Egyptians as de thigh. E be thought dat a vertical alignment between these two stars dey check plus a plumb bob be used to ascertain where North lay. De deviations from true North using dis model reflect de accepted dates of construction of de pyramids.

Egyptians be de first to develop a 365-day, 12 month calendar. E be a stellar calendar, created by observing de stars.

During de 12th century, de astrolabic quadrant be invented insyd Egypt.

West Africa den de Sahel

Based on de translation of 14 Timbuktu manuscripts, de following points can be made about astronomical knowledge insyd Timbuktu during de 14th–16th centuries:

1. They make use of de Julian Calendar.
2. Generally speaking, they had a geocentric view of de Solar System.
3. Some manuscripts include diagrams of planets den orbits along plus mathematical calculations.
4. They be able to accurately orient prayer towards Mecca.
5. They recorded astronomical events, wey include a meteor shower insyd August 1583.

At this time, Mali sana have a number of astronomers wey include de emperor den scientist Askia Mohammad I.

Eastern Africa

Megalithic "pillar sites", known as "namoratunga", date to as early as 5,000 years ago den can be found surrounding Lake Turkana insyd Kenya. Although somewhat controversial today, initial interpretations suggested dat they be used by Cushitic speaking people as an alignment plus star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days.

Southern Africa

Today, South Africa has cultivated a burgeoning astronomy community. E dey host de Southern African Large Telescope, de largest optical telescope insyd de southern hemisphere. South Africa be currently building de Karoo Array Telescope as a pathfinder for de $20 billion Square Kilometer Array project. South Africa be a finalist, plus Australia, to be de host of de SKA.

Due to archeological findings it has been speculated dat de kingdoms of Zimbabwe such as Great Zimbabwe den mapungubwe use astronomy. Monolith stones plus special engravings thought to be used to track Venus be found. They be compared to Mayan calendars den be found to be more accurate dan them

Mathematics

According to Paulus Gerdes, de development of geometrical thinking dey start early insyd African history, as early humans learned to "geometricize" insyd de context of demma labor activities. For example, de hunter-gatherers of de Kalahari Desert insyd southern Africa learn to track animals, learn to recognize den interpret spoors. They get to know dat de shape of de spoor provide information on what animal pass by, how long ago, if e be hungry or not, etc. Such developments propelled Louis Liebenberg to posit dat de critical attitude of contemporary Kalahari Desert trackers den de role of critical discussion insyd tracking suggest dat de rationalist tradition of science may well have been practiced by hunter-gatherers long before de advent of de Greek philosophic schools. Rock paintings den engravings from all over Africa have been reported. Some of these artifacts date back to several hundreds of years, den odas several thousands. They often have geometric structures. Oda archaeological dey find dat indicate geometrical explorations by African hunters, farmers den artisans be stone den metal tools den ceramics. Particularly exceptional be archaeological dey find of perishable materials such as baskets, textiles, den wooden objects. De finds from de Tellem be extremely important, as they provide ideas of earlier geometrical explorations. Clear evidence of de exploration of forms, shapes den symmetries dey exist insyd de archaeological dey find from caves insyd de Cliff of Bandiagara insyd de center of Mali. De earliest buildings insyd de caves be cylindrical granaries make of mud coils dat date from de 3rd to de 2nd century BCE.

Central den Southern Africa

De Lebombo bone from de mountains between Swaziland den South Africa may be de oldest known mathematical artifact. E date from 35,000 BCE den dey consist of 29 distinct notches dat be deliberately cut into a baboon ein fibula.

The Ishango bone is a bone tool from the Democratic Republic of Congo dated to the Upper Paleolithic era, about 18,000 to 20,000 BCE. It is also a baboon's fibula, with a sharp piece of quartz affixed to one end, perhaps for engraving or writing. It was first thought to be a tally stick, as it has a series of tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the tool, but some scientists have suggested that the groupings of notches indicate a mathematical understanding that goes beyond counting. Various functions for the bone have been proposed: it may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation, a six-month lunar calendar, or it may have been made by a woman keeping track of her menstrual cycle.

De Bushong people can distinguish graphs dat have Eulerian paths den those dat do not. They use such graphs for purposes wey include embroidery or political prestige. According to a European ethnologist insyd 1905, Bushong children be not only aware of de conditions which determine whether a given graph be traceable, but they sana know de procedure dat permit it to be drawn most expeditiously. There be various textbooks made by mathematicians using such culturally based graphs den designs to teach mathematics, such as those made by Paulus Gerdes. According to ethnomathematician Claudia Zaslavsky;

Students of all ages den all ethnic backgrounds, as well as demma instructors, be fascinated by de Bushoong den Chokwe networks den be impressed by de failure of de European ethnologist Emil Torday to solve de problem set to him by Bushoong children, a problem dat present a challenge to American students den demma teachers as well, but be solved easily by African children. — 

De "sona" drawing tradition of Angola sana exhibit certain mathematical ideas.

Insyd 1982, Rebecca Walo Omana become de first female mathematics professor insyd de Democratic Republic of de Congo.

Northern Africa and the Nile Valley

By de predynastic Naqada period insyd Egypt, people have fully developed a numeral system. De importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian be suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter insyd which de writer proposes a scholarly competition between einself den anoda scribe wey regard everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor den grain. Texts such as de Rhind Mathematical Papyrus den de Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show dat de ancient Egyptians can perform de four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, den division—use fractions, know de formula to compute de volume of a frustum, den calculate de surface areas of triangles, circles den even hemispheres. They understand basic concepts of algebra den geometry, den can solve simple sets of simultaneous equations.

2⁄3 in hieroglyphs

Mathematical notation be decimal, den based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these can be written as many times as necessary to add up to de desired number; so to write de number eighty or eight hundred, de symbol for ten or one hundred be written eight times respectively. Because demma methods of calculation can not handle most fractions plus a numerator greater than one, ancient Egyptian fractions have to be written as de sum of several fractions. For example, de fraction two-fifths be resolved into de sum of one-third + one-fifteenth; dis be facilitated by standard tables of values. Some common fractions, however, be written plus a special glyph; de equivalent of de modern two-thirds be shown on de right.

Ancient Egyptian mathematicians have a grasp of de principles underlying de Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for example, dat a triangle have a right angle opposite de hypotenuse when e sides be insyd a 3–4–5 ratio. They be able to estimate de area of a circle by subtracting one-ninth from ein diameter den squaring de result:

Area ≈ [(⁸⁄₉)D]² = (²⁵⁶⁄₈₁)r² ≈ 3.16r²,

a reasonable approximation of de formula πr².

De golden ratio seems to be reflected insyd many Egyptian constructions, wey include de pyramids, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of de ancient Egyptian practice of combining de use of knotted ropes plus an intuitive sense of proportion den harmony.

Based on engraved plans of Meroitic King Amanikhabali ein pyramids, Nubians have a sophisticated understanding of mathematics den an appreciation of de harmonic ratio. De engraved plans be indicative of much to be revealed about Nubian mathematics.

Metallurgy

Further information: History of metallurgy insyd Africa

Most of Africa moved from de Stone Age to de Iron Age. De Iron Age den Bronze Age occur simultaneously. North Africa den de Nile Valley dey import ein iron technology from de Near East den followed de Near Eastern pattern of development from de Bronze Age to de Iron Age.

Many Africanists accept an independent development of de use of iron south of de Sahara. Among archaeologists, e be a debatable issue. De earliest dating of iron outside of North Africa be 2500 BCE at Egaro, west of Termit, making it contemporary plus iron smelting insyd de Middle East. De Egaro date be debatable plus archaeologists, due to de method use to attain it. De Termit date of 1500 BCE be widely accepted. Iron at de site of Lejja, Nigeria, has been radiocarbon date to approximately 2000 BCE. Iron use, insyd smelting den forging for tools, appears insyd West Africa by 1200 BCE, making it one of de first places for de birth of de Iron Age. Before de 19th century, African methods of extracting iron be employed insyd Brazil, until more advanced European methods be instituted.

John K. Thornton dey conclude dat Africans metalworkers be producing demma goods at de same or higher levels of productivity as demma European counterparts.

Archaeometallurgical scientific knowledge den technological development originate insyd numerous centers of Africa; de centers of origin be located insyd West Africa, Central Africa, den East Africa; consequently, as these origin centers be located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments be thus native African technologies. Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631 BCE – 2458 BCE at Lejja, insyd Nigeria, 2136 BCE – 1921 BCE at Obui, insyd Central Africa Republic, 1895 BCE – 1370 BCE at Tchire Ouma 147, insyd Niger, den 1297 BCE – 1051 BCE at Dekpassanware, insyd Togo.

West Africa

Besides being masters insyd iron, Africans be masters insyd brass, copper, den bronze. Ife showed artistic mastery insyd demma striking naturalistic statues of brass den copper, a lost wax tradition beginning insyd de 11-12th centuries. Ife sana be a manufacturer of glass den glass beads. Benin later mastered a mix of brass den bronze during de 16th century, producing portraiture den reliefs insyd de metals.

Insyd West Africa, several centres of iron production using natural draft furnaces emerged from de early second millennium CE. Iron production insyd Banjeli den Bassar for example insyd Togo reached up to 80,000 cubic meters(which be more than de production at places such as Meroe), analyses indicate dat fifteenth-and sixteenth-century CE slags from this area were just bloomery waste products, while preliminary metallographic analyses of objects indicate them to be made of low-carbon steels. Insyd Burkina Faso, de Korsimoro district reach up to 169,900 cubic meters. Insyd de Dogon region, de sub-region of Fiko has about 300,000 cubic meters of slag produced.

Brass barrel blunderbuss be said to have been produced insyd some states of de Gold Coast insyd de eighteenth den nineteenth centuries. Various accounts indicate dat Asante blacksmiths be not only able to repair firearms, but dat barrels, locks den stocks be on occasion remade.

Insyd de Aïr Mountains region of Niger, copper smelting be independently developed between 3000 den 2500 BCE. De undeveloped nature of de process dey indicate dat e no be of foreign origin. Smelting insyd de region become mature around 1500 BCE.

De Sahel

Africa be a major supplier of gold insyd world trade during de Medieval Age. De Sahelian empires become powerful by controlling de Trans-Saharan trade routes. They provide 2/3 of de gold insyd Europe den North Africa. De Almoravid dinar den de Fatimid dinar be printed on gold from de Sahelian empires. De ducat of Genoa den Venice den de florine of Florence sana be printed on gold from de Sahelian empires. When gold sources be depleted insyd de Sahel, de empires turn to trade plus de Ashanti Empire.

De Swahili traders insyd East Africa be major suppliers of gold to Asia insyd de Red Sea den Indian Ocean trade routes. De trading port cities den city-states of de Swahili East African coast be among de first African cities to come into contact plus European explorers den sailors during de European Age of Discovery. Many be documented den praised insyd de recordings of North African explorer Abu Muhammad ibn Battuta.

Northern Africa den de Nile Valley

Nubia be a major source of gold insyd de ancient world. Gold be a major source of Kushitic wealth den power. Gold be mined East of de Nile insyd Wadi Allaqi den Wadi Cabgaba.

Around 500 BCE, Nubia, during de Meroitic phase, become a major manufacturer den exporter of iron. Dis be after being expelled from Egypt by Assyrians, who dey use iron weapons.

East Africa

De Aksumites produce coins around 270  CE, under de rule of King Endubis. Aksumite coins be issued insyd gold, silver, den bronze.

Since 500 BCE, Bantu peoples insyd Uganda had been producing high-grade carbon steels using preheated forced draft furnaces, a technique achieve insyd Europe only plus de Siemons process insyd de mid-19th century. Anthropologist Peter Schmidt discover through de communication of oral tradition dat de Haya insyd Tanzania have been forging steel for around 2000 years. This discovery was made accidentally while Schmidt was learning about de history of de Haya via demma oral tradition. He dey lead to a tree which be said to rest on de spot of an ancestral furnace use to forge steel. When later tasked plus de challenge of recreating de forges, a group of elders who at dis time be de only ones to remember de practice, due to de disuse of de practice due insyd part to de abundance of steel flowing into the country from foreign sources. In spite of demma lack of practice, de elders be able to create a furnace using mud den grass which when burnt provide de carbon needed to transform de iron into steel. Later investigation of de area yielded 13 oda furnaces similar insyd design to de recreation set up by de elders. These furnaces were carbon dated and were found to be as old as 2000 years, whereas steel of dis caliber did not appear insyd Europe until several centuries later.

Two types of iron furnaces be used insyd most of Africa: de trench dug below ground den circular clay structures built above ground. Iron ores be crushed den placed insyd furnaces layered plus de right proportion of hardwood. A flux such as lime sometimes from seashells be added to aid insydsmelting. Bellows on de side will be use to add oxygen. Clay pipes on de sides call tuyères will be use to control oxygen flow.

Central Africa

Two examples of European efforts to compete plus African iron production highlight de degree of skill possessed by Kongo smiths. De first be a Portuguese effort to establish an iron foundry insyd Angola insyd de 1750s. De foundry be unsuccessful insyd transferring technology to Kongo black smiths; rather, "it concentrated smiths from across de colony insyd one area under one wage-labor system. Such methods be a tacit recognition of Kongo ironworking skill. De Portuguese foundry at Novas Oerias utilized European techniques be unsuccessful, never becoming competitive plus Angolan smiths. De iron produce by Kongo smiths be superior to dat of European imports produce under European processes. There be no incentive to replace Kongo iron plus European iron unless Kongo iron be unavailable. European iron of de period contain a high amount of sulfur den when compared to de high carbon steel produced by Kongo iron processes, be less durable, a "rotten" metal. European iron be de second choice, whether de purchaser be from Asante, Yoruba or Kongo. De key to de gradual acceptance of European iron be ecological disaster. Gaucher (1981) believe dat deforestation lead to increased reliance on pre-forged European iron bars dat can be carbonized insyd furnaces using less charcoal than smelting iron from ore. Insyd a similar development elsewhere insyd de world, English iron production be crippled by de depletion of English forests for charcoal for English forges. Insyd 1750 de Iron Act will force demma American colonies to export demma iron exclusively to England. Dis be amongst oda well known reasons one of de grievances de colonists have against de English crown den a contributory factor de American Revolution". Anoda series of wars insyd Kongo however will ensure dat de technical expertise to support English demand be insyd existence insyd America, albeit as slave labor. When African techniques can no longer create high quality carbon steel de lower quality European iron become a necessity. Lower quality iron sana become more acceptable as de need to supply large numbers of warriors (numbering insyd de hundreds of thousands) plus weapons quickly push out considerations of artisan-quality steel versus "rotten iron" imports. War break out insyd de Kingdom of Kongo den after 1665; much of de stability den access to iron ore den charcoal necessary for smiths to ply demma craft be disrupted. Many Kongo people be sold as slaves den demma skills become invaluable insyd New World settings as blacksmiths, charcoal makers den ironworkers for demma colonial masters. Slaves be relied upon to produce vital components for de forges den as demma skills insyd iron working become evident, demma importance to colonial economies grow.

At Oboui they excavate an undated iron forge yielding eight consistent radiocarbon dates of 2000 BCE. Dis will make Oboui de oldest iron-working site insyd de world, den more than a thousand years older than any oda dated evidence of iron insyd Central Africa.

Medicine

Further information: Traditional African medicine

Traditional African plants such as Ouabain, capsicum, yohimbine, ginger, white squill, african kino, African copaiba, African myrrh, Buchu, physostigmine, and Kola nut have been adopted and continue to be used by Western doctors.

West Africa and the Sahel

De knowledge of inoculating oneself against smallpox seems to have been known to West Africans, more specifically de Akan. A slave name Onesimus dey explain de inoculation procedure to Cotton Mather during de 18th century; he report to have gotten de knowledge from Africa.

Bonesetting be practiced by many groups of West Africa (de Akan, Mano, and Yoruba, to name a few).

Insyd Djenné de mosquito be isolated to be de cause of malaria, den de removal of cataracts be a common surgical procedure (as insyd many oda parts of Africa). De dangers of tobacco smoking be known to African Muslim scholars, based on Timbuktu manuscripts.

Palm oil be important insyd health den hygiene. A German visiting insyd 1603-1604 report dat people wash themselves three times a day, "after which they anoint themselves plus tallow or plus palm oil, which be an excellent medicine". Palm oil protect de skin den hair, den it have cosmetic value insyd many cultures. Women (den sometimes men) spread palm oil on demma skin to "shine de whole day". Palm oil sana be a useful way of applying decorative color den perfumes, like powdered camwood. Many Africans dey consider palm oil to be a medicine insyd ein own right, den e serve as a medium for delivering oda curative substances. Historical sources recount healers mixing herbs plus palm oil to treat skin conditions or ease headaches. A seventeenth-century Portuguese source dey describe palm oil as a "popular cure" insyd Angola, while de "leaves, roots, bark den fruit" of de oil palm be used to treat conditions ranging from arthritis to snake den insect bites. Foreign visitors praise de quality of soap made from palm den palm kernel oils, mixed plus ashes from palm fronds. One writer attest dat "de Negroes Cloathes are very clean" as a result. De roasting method often use to extract kernel oil produced de characteristic color of de famous "black soap" make by West African artisans. Palm den palm kernel soaps be traded extensively insyd regional markets.

Admiring West African medicinal prowess, Johannes Rask concluded dat "Africans be much better suited dan we dey, as regards demma health care".

During de Atlantic slave trade, European sailors report how African slaves will be able to recover from outbreaks of diseases like smallpox within de ships by using demma traditional medicine which include palm oil. Europeans will use these themselves to help against dysentery. De bark of yams be used to treat worm infestations. De negroes be so innocent to de smallpox, dat few ships dat carry them escape without it, den sometimes e make vast havoc den a destruction among them; but though we had 100 at a time sick of it, den dat it go through de ship, yet we lost not above a dozen by it. All the assistance we gave the diseased was only as much water as they desired to drink, and sam palm oil to anoint demma sores, den they will generally recover without any oda help but what kind nature give them.

— 

Northern Africa and the Nile Valley

Further information: Ancient Egyptian medicine

Ancient Egyptian physicians be renowned insyd de ancient Near East for demma healing skills, den some, like Imhotep, dey remain famous long after demma deaths. Herodotus remark dat there be a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, plus some treating only de head or de stomach, while odas be eye-doctors den dentists. Training of physicians take place at de Per Ankh or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered insyd Per-Bastet during de New Kingdom den at Abydos den Saïs insyd de Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, den practical treatments. Wounds be treated by bandaging plus raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads den swabs soaked plus honey to prevent infection, while opium be used to relieve pain. Garlic den onions be used regularly to promote good health den be thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, den amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized dat some injuries be so serious dat they can only make de patient comfortable until he die.

Around 800, de first psychiatric hospital den insane asylum insyd Egypt be built by Muslim physicians insyd Cairo.

Insyd 1285, de largest hospital of de Middle Ages den pre-modern era be built insyd Cairo, Egypt, by Sultan Qalaun al-Mansur. Treatment be given for free to patients of all backgrounds, regardless of gender, ethnicity or income.

Tetracycline be being used by Nubians, based on bone remains between 350 CE den 550 CE. De antibiotic be insyd wide commercial use only insyd de mid 20th century. De theory be earthen jars containing grain used for making beer contain de bacterium streptomycedes, which produce tetracycline. Although Nubians no be aware of tetracycline, they can have noticed people fared better by drinking beer. According to Charlie Bamforth, a professor of biochemistry den brewing science at de University of California, Davis, say "They must have consumed it because e rather be tastier than de grain from which e be derived. They will have noticed people fared better by consuming dis product than they be just consuming de grain einself."

East Africa

European travelers insyd de Great Lakes region of Africa during de 19th century report cases of surgery insyd de kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara. Medical historians, such as Jack Davies argue insyd 1959 dat Bunyoro ein traditional healers be perhaps de most highly skill insyd precolonial sub-Saharan Africa, possessing a remarkable level of medical knowledge. One observer noted a "surgical skill which had reached a high standard". Caesarean sections den oda abdominal den thoracic operations be performed on a regular basis plus de avoidance of haemorrhage den sepsis using antiseptics, anaesthetics den cautery iron. De expectant mommie normally be anesthetized plus banana wine, den herbal mixtures be used to encourage healing. From de well-developed nature of de procedures employed, European observers conclude dat they have been employed for some time. Bunyoro surgeons treat lung inflammations, Pneumonia den pleurisy by punching holes insyd de chest until de air passed freely. Trephining be carry out den de bones of depressed fractures be elevated. Horrible war wounds, even penetrating abdominal den chest wounds be treated plus success, even when dis involved quite heroic surgery. Amputations be done by tying a tight ligature just above de line of amputation den neatly cutting off de limb, stretch out on a smooth log, plus one strike of a sharp sword. Banyoro surgeons have a good knowledge of anatomy, insyd part obtain by carrying out autopsies. Inoculation against smallpox be carried out insyd Bunyoro den ein neighbouring kingdoms. Over 200 plants be used medicinally insyd eastern Bunyoro alone den recent tests have shown dat traditional cures for eczema den post-measles bloody diarrhoea be more effective than western medications. Bunyoro ein Medical elite, de "Bafumu", have a system of apprenticeship den even "meet at periods for conferences". Insyd Bunyoro, there be a close relationship between de state den traditional healers. Kings give healers "land spread insyd de different areas so dat demma services will reach more people". Moreover, "insyd de case of a disease hitting a given area", de king will order healers into de affected district. Kabaleega be said to have provided ein soldiers be anti-malarial herbs, den even to have organized medical research. A Munyoro healer report insyd 1902 dat when an outbreak of what he termed sleeping sickness occur insyd Bunyoro around 1886–87, wey cause many deaths, Kabaleega order him "to make experiments in the interest of science", which were "eventually successful in procuring a cure". Barkcloth, which be used to bandage wounds, has been proven to be antimicrobial.

Brain surgery sana be practiced insyd de Great Lakes region of Africa

Insyd de Kingdom of Rwanda, people afflicted plus Yaws be put into quarantine den if necessary, kings close de kingdom ein borders to combat de spread of smallpox.

Central Africa

General den local anesthesia be widely used by traditional doctors insyd many parts of central Africa. Beer containing an extract of kaffir be orally given to those who sustained deep wounds from animal attacks or from warfare insyd order to alleviate pain, den alkeloid containing leaves sana be applied topically to injuries. Many tribes insyd central africa perform cataract surgery under local anesthesia, squeezing juices from alkaloid plants directly into de eyes to desentisize them den then pushing de cataract aside plus a sharp stick, plus many cases turning out successful. "De surgical skill einself sana be astonishing den suggest a long experience of dis practice".

Southern Africa

A South African, Max Theiler, developed a vaccine against yellow fever insyd 1937. Allan McLeod Cormack develop de theoretical underpinnings of CT scanning den co-invented de CT-scanner.

De first human-to-human heart transplant be performed by South African cardiac surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital insyd December 1967. Sanso see Hamilton Naki.

During de 1960s, South African Aaron Klug developed crystallographic electron microscopy techniques, insyd which a sequence of two-dimensional images of crystals taken from different angles be combined to produce three-dimensional images of de target.

De Zulu king represent de ultimate public health official. As Ndukwana, one of Stuart ein respondents, explains, "All people like de land they lived on belonged to de king. If any man get seriously ill, ein illness will be notified to de mnumzana[head-man], who will instantly report de fact to de izinduna (chiefs) den they to de king. De king will then most likely give de order to consult diviners so as to discover de nature den cause of ein illness. A sick man insyd Zululand be always an object of great importance.' Insyd theory de Zulu king den ein local chiefs take responsibility for de well-being of demma people den surround themselves plus a variety of different doctors to assist them insyd dis function. While not all illness be brought to de attention of de king, kraal heads have to report illness to demma local chiefs. Depending on de social status of de ill person or number of persons afflicted, a report will be sent to de king. The Zulu proverb inkosi yinkosi ngabantu-a king is a king by the people, emphasized the reciprocal relationship between a king den ein people. Insyd exchange for de labor den loyalty of ein subjects, de king provided for the welfare of his people, and his failure to do so could lead people to konza to another ruler. Zulu-speakers who konza'ed white rulers insyd neighboring Natal thus can not understand why such responsibilities be not sana assume by demma new rulers. Anoda reason sickness den death sometimes gain attention at de highest levels of de state be de link between illness den witchcraft. Illness dey represent de possibility of persons who sought to destabilize de chiefdom or nation, den consequently chiefs can get insyd trouble for not reporting illness. Upon learning of an illness, a chief or de king will sometimes provide ein own doctors, presumably de best insyd de area, or send for doctors or medicines from de surrounding regions. Insyd some cases de king provide ein own personal medicines. De state of public health thus sana represent de metaphorical health of de nation state. During periods of crisis, such as droughts, epidemics, locust infestations, or epizootics, de king will summon ein best doctors den mobilize a national response. One notable medical phenomenon lead state healers to connect a number of unexplained deaths to de wearing of a whitish metal (perhaps tin or silver). By order of either Tshaka or Dingane, the sources seem unclear on this point, this metal was banned and collected from around the nation and buried. Dis shows de reach den power of de Zulu state insyd carrying out public health initiatives. Anoda example, perhaps more typical, be de bands of soldiers who be marshaled to kill locusts during times of infestation. Likewise periods of drought lead de king not only to hire reputed raindoctors for de nation but to mobilize people to look for inkhonkwanes-herbs (over 240 medicinal plants be used by de Zulu) den medicine pegs put on mountaintops by umthakathis seeking to prevent rain and thus cause social disruption. Whereas these examples point to a reactive form of public health, a number of preventative measures den rituals occur during public festivals such as de yearly Inyatela (First Fruits) den umkhosi (royal) celebrations. At these celebrations, large groups of people from around de nation come to witness den participate insyd ceremonies dat take place insyd a short span of each oda insyd December den January. At these festivals, de king, as de preeminent healer of de land, accompanied Healing de Body by ein doctors den regiments, performed preventative measures aimed at ensuring de well-being of de nation den all who live insyd it.

Bone-setting was commonly practiced in Southern Africa by the native communities. Even broken fingers were treated. Abdominal wounds with protruding intestines were manipulated successfully by inserting a small calabash to hold the intestines in place and suturing the skin over it.

Agriculture

Tropical soils be typically low insyd organic matter den so present special problems to agriculturalists. Indeed African soils, (outside alluvial den volcanic areas) be insyd large part deficient insyd de characteristics of structure, texture, den chemistry which mainly determine soil fertility. Tropical areas do not have a winter season, so micro-organisms continue to break down organic matter throughout de year. Tropical soils typically have very small percentages of organic matter or humus (sometimes as little as 1%) as a result. Soils insyd temperate climates may, insyd contrast, consist of 12 to 14 or (in virgin soils insyd de Midwestern United States) up to 16% organic materials, because de cold winters slow de processes of decomposition den allow organic material to build up over time. Insyd many tropical regions, farmers practice a semi-sedentary form of agriculture, using fields for two or three years den then abandoning them for a decade or more (up to 25 years after two years of cultivation insyd de case of savanna woodlands insyd Africa), until de humus content have been restored by natural processes.

Through careful observation, experimentation den selection of desirable traits over de course of 2,000 years, africans managed to create a rich diversity of Banana den plantain types (120 different types of plantains den 60 different types of bananas). Due to dis there emerged a second area of Banana diversification outside of Asia, one plus de Highland cooking banana insyd de African Great Lakes den de Plantain insyd West den Central Africa. Dis show de agricultural skills den innovative practices africans mastered den continuously developed insyd de millennia before europeans arrive into de continent.

Like de natives of de Amazon rainforest, Africans sana utilized dark earths similar to Terra preta.

Northern Africa and the Nile Valley

Archaeologists have long debated whether or not de independent domestication of cattle occur insyd Africa as well as de Near East den Indus Valley. Possible remain of domesticated cattle be identified insyd de Western Desert of Egypt at de sites of Nabta Playa den Bir Kiseiba den be dated to c. 9500–8000 BP, but those identifications have been questioned. Genetic evidence suggests dat cattle be most likely introduced from Southwest Asia, den dat there may have been some later breeding plus wild aurochs insyd northern Africa.

Genetic evidence sana indicate dat donkeys be domesticated from de African wild ass. Archaeologists have found donkey burials insyd early dynastic contexts dating to ~5000 BP at Abydos, Middle Egypt, den examination of de bones shows dat they be used as beasts of burden.

Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum Linnaeus) may have been domesticated 5000 BCE insyd eastern Sudan near de Middle Nile Basin region, where cotton cloth be being produced.

East Africa

Finger millet be originally native to de highlands of East Africa den be domesticated before de third millennium BCE insyd Uganda den Ethiopia. Its cultivation have spread to South India by 1800 BCE.

Engaruka be an Iron Age archaeological site insyd northern Tanzania known for de ruins of a complex irrigation system. Stone channels be used to dike, dam, den level surrounding river waters. Some of these channels be several kilometers long, channelling den feeding individual plots of land totaling approximately 5,000 acres (20 km²). Seven stone-terraced villages along de mountainside sana comprise de settlement.

De Shilluk Kingdom gain control of de west bank of de white Nile as far north as Kosti insyd Sudan. There they establish an economy based on cereal farming den fishing, plus permanent settlements located along de length of de river. De Shilluk developed an extremely intensive system of agriculture based on sorghum, millet den oda crops. By de 1600s, shillukland have a population density similar or exceeding dat of de Egyptian Nile lands.

Ethiopians, particularly de Oromo people, be de first to have discovered den recognize de energizing effect of de coffee bean plant.

Ox-drawn plows seems to have been used insyd Ethiopia for two millennia, den possibly much longer. Linguistic evidences suggests dat de Ethiopian plow might be de oldest plow insyd Africa.

Teff be believed to have originated insyd Ethiopia between 4000 den 1000 BCE. Genetic evidence points to E. pilosa as de most likely wild ancestor. Noog (Guizotia abyssinica) den ensete (E. ventricosum) be two odas plants domesticate insyd Ethiopia.

Ethiopians used terraced hillside cultivation for erosion prevention den irrigation. A 19th century European describe Yeha:

All de surrounding hills have been terraced for cultivation, den present much de same appearance as de hills insyd Greece den Asia Minor, which have been neglected for centuries; but nowhere insyd Greece or Asia Minor have I ever seen such an enormous extent of terraced mountains as insyd dis Abyssinian valley. Hundreds den thousands of acres must here have been under de most careful cultivation, right up almost to de tops of de mountains, den now nothing be left but de regular lines of de sustaining walls, den a few trees dotted about here den there. This valley be most completely shut insyd, quite such a one as one can imagine Rasselas to have lived insyd — 

Bantu farmers insyd East Africa experimented plus all available crops den sought to produce as many as possible.

Since communications den markets be relatively poorly developed, de farmer have to sow a great variety of crops plus a great variety of characteristics, insyd order to survive no matter what de climatic variations, so dat he will not be, insyd effect, wiped out. By taking a single ecological zone, understanding ein complexity plus a thoroughness incomprehensible to even a Westerner, developing a rich den subtle language plus a profusion of terms for de understanding of local ecology, planting dozens of crops to which de environment be peculiarly suited, de farmer sought to defeat famine, to cheat death.

within de African Great Lakes advanced agriculture practices be employed such as "hydraulic practices insyd de mountains, man-made watering places, river diversions, hollowed-out tree-trunk pipes, irrigation on cultivated slopes, mounding insyd drained marshes, den irrigation of banana den palm tree gardens" as well as extensive use of terraces den de practice of double den triple cropping. De agrarian success of de Great Lakes civilization accounts for ein exceptionally high levels of human density. Many foreign experts be impressed by de sophistication of de areas traditional methods of intensive farming. De agriculture of de great lakes be described below:

De "beautiful irrigated fields", de steep terraced slopes of de thousand hills, where every patch of ground be put to use, de "well-fed cattle plus colossal horns" be "wonderful discoveries" to de Europeans. But even greater surprises await them.

— 

De earliest Europeans to visit Rwanda observe intense pride insyd cultivating skills. A mommie will give a crying baby a toy hoe to play plus den a range of techniques often superior to those of eastern European peasants, notably de use of manure, terracing, den artificial irrigation. De Chaga people have long practiced an advanced form of agriculture which allow them to maintain a high population density involving de control den distribution of water. Europeans write of demma admirably constructed irrigation works den de care they witnessed insyd de maintenance of them den demma powerfully centralized social organization. Sir Harry Johnston, writing insyd 1894, echoe dis praise of Chagga industry den skill:

They mostly excel insyd demma husbandry, de skill plus which they irrigate demma terraced hillsides plus tiny runnels of eater shows considerable advancement insyd agriculture. Demma time be constantly spent insyd tilling de soil, manuring it plus ashes, raking it den hoeing it plus wooden hoes — 

West Africa den de Sahel

De earliest evidence for de domestication of plants for agricultural purposes insyd Africa occur insyd de Sahel region c. 5000 BCE, when sorghum den African rice (Oryza glaberrima) begin to be cultivated. Around dis time, den insyd de same region, de small guineafowl be domesticated. Oda African domesticated plants be oil palm, raffia palm, African yam, black-eyed peas, Bambara groundnut, Cowpea, Fonio, Pearl millet, den kola nuts.

Investigations insyd de Upper Guinea forest region by found connections between palm oil processing, "sacred agroforests", den anthropogenic soil, or "dark earths". They identified "palm oil production pits" as central loci for de formation of dark earths, where charred palm kernels den oda organic materials enriched soils for use insyd fields of vegetables den trees. Once leaf fallow those fields gradually morphed into biodiverse groves of palms den oda forest species. These anthropogenic landscapes, patches of AfDES (African dark earths) den anthropogenic vegetation be permeated plus symbolic significance because they be de ongoing outcome of inhabitation trajectories begin by ancestors, continuing to de present day. They be not simply areas of improved soils den anthropogenic agroforests, but de relics of old towns, villages, kitchens, graveyards, den initiation society areas, many of which be inhabited by direct ancestors of current inhabitants.

African oil palms be most abundant as part of de oil palm-yam complex beginning just south den east of de rice belt running from Lower Guinea across de derived savannas of de Dahomey Gap den through de Niger Delta. From there oil palm cultivation extended deep into de Central African rainforests where swidden farmers spared den managed palms within demma plots of yams, cocoyams, plantains, legumes, den oda crops, den where dense rainforest alternated plus emergent oil palm groves. Long disparaged by some Western scientists den environmentalists as "slash-and-burn", ecological research since de mid-twentieth century has demonstrated de efficacy of such ancestral systems, linking traditional swidden-fallow landscapes plus enhanced floral den faunal biodiversity, higher return on labor investment, food security, nutritional balance, den overall resilience den reliability, especially when compared to monocultures. Throughout western Africa, oil palm agroforests helped to nourish human communities by contributing to food security den balanced diets, complementing carbohydrate-rich tubers den grains plus fats, provitamin A carotenoids (mainly a-and B-carotenes), den vitamin E. De source of fats be particularly important within de broad swath of sub-Saharan Africa where de voracious tsetse fly den de trypanosomiasis pathogens e carry make livestock husbandry virtually impossible.

African methods of cultivating rice, introduce by enslaved Africans, may have been used insyd North Carolina. Dis may have been a factor insyd de prosperity of de North Carolina colony. Portuguese observers between de half of de 15th century den de 16th century witness de cultivation of rice insyd de Upper Guinea Coast, den admired de local rice-growing technology, as e dey involve intensive agricultural practices such as diking den transplanting.

Yams be domesticated 8000 BCE insyd West Africa. Between 7000 den 5000 BCE, pearl millet, gourds, watermelons, den beans sana spread westward across de southern Sahara.

Between 6500 den 3500 BCE knowledge of domesticated sorghum, castor beans, den two species of gourd spread from Africa to Asia. Pearl millet, black-eyed peas, watermelon, den okra later spread to de rest of de world.

Insyd de lack of more detailed historical den archaeological studies on de chronology of terracing, intensive terrace farming be believed to have been practiced before de early 15th century CE insyd West Africa. Terraces be used by many groups, notably de Mafa, Ngas, Gwoza, den de Dogon.

Southern Africa

Insyd order to prevent erosion, southern africans built dry-stone terraces on steep hillsides.

Randall MacIver describes de irrigation technology used insyd Nyanga, Zimbabwe:

De country about Inyanga be well watered, but e will seem dat de old inhabitants

require a more general distribution of de supply than be afforded by de numerous

streams running down from de hills. Accordingly, they adopt a practice which has been prevalent under similar conditions insyd several oda countries, Algeria being one instancewhich has come under de waiter ein own observation. De stream be tapped at a point near ein source, den part of de water deflected by a stone dam. Dis give them a high-level conduit, by which de water can be carried along de side of a hill den allow to descend more gradually than de parent stream. There be very many such conduits insyd de Inyanga region, den they often run for several miles. De gradients be admirably calculated, plus a skill which no be always equalled by modern engineers plus demma elaborate instruments. De dams be well den strongly build of unworked stones without mortar; de conduits themselves be simple trenches about one metre insyd depth. De earth taken out of de trench be piled on ein lower side den supported by boulders imbedded insyd am.

External links

• Timbuktu: Recapturing the Wisdom and History of a Region at Youtube, created and posted by the Ford Foundation
• Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu at the Library of Congress, US
• African Fractals: Modern computing and indigenous design by Ron Eglash, at ted.com
• Brief description of the Yoruba number system at the Prentice Hall website
• Cambridge Museum: African Textile Collection
• Profile of William Kamkwamba, TED Fellow, at Wired.com
• African Influences in Modern Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art