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Lake Chad

From Wikipedia
Lake Chad
endorheic lake, aeolian lake, lake
InflowsChari River, Logone River, Yobe River, Ngadda River Edit
Drainage basinChad Basin Edit
CountryChad, Cameroon, Nigeria, Niger Edit
Edey de administrative territorial entity insydFar North Edit
Located in time zoneUTC+01:00 Edit
Coordinate location13°5′52″N 14°32′2″E Edit
Heritage designationRamsar site, Tentative World Heritage Site, Tentative World Heritage Site, Tentative World Heritage Site Edit
Category for maps or plansCategory:Maps of Lake Chad Edit
Map

Lake Chad (Arabic: بحيرة تشاد, Kanuri: Sádǝ, French: Lac Tchad) be endorheic fresh water lake wey dey for where four kontris meet: Nigeria, Niger, Chad den Cameroon, for western den central Africa. Ein catchment area pass 1,000,000 km2. De lake be important wetland ecosystem for West-Central Africa. De land near de lake get plenti reeds den swamps, den de plain around de lake be fertile, so people dey use am for irrigated farming. De lake get plenti aquatic resources too, so e be one of Africa ein important fresh water fish-producing areas.

Lake Chad get deeper southern parts den shallower northern parts. De main water source be rivers like Chari River wey enter de lake. De water level dey change plenti by season, so de lake area too dey change strongly. During de African humid period, de lake ein area reach about 400,000 km2. As climate turn drier, de lake surface reduce slow-slow. For de 19th century, de lake still cover about 28,000 km2. From de mid-1970s come, climate change den human water diversion make de lake shrink well, and ein area dey move between about 2,000 den 5,000 km2.

Prehistory den history

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De Chad Basin form through depression of de African Shield. De basin floor dey made of Precambrian bedrock, and more than 3,600 m of sedimentary deposits cover am.[1] For most of de Quaternary period, de basin get plenti water sources. Near de end of dis period, de climate become drier. Around 20,000-40,000 years ago, eolianite sand dunes start to form for de northern side of de basin.[2]

Lake Chad area get four major wet phases between 39,000 BC den 300 BC. Dis left thick diatomaceous earth den lacustrine deposits for de strata. People dey call dis large ancient lake Mega-Chad. Mega-Chad ein maximum depth pass 180 m, and e cover about 400,000 km2. E flow enter Benue River through de Mayo Kebbi, and de water later drain enter de Atlantic Ocean through de Niger River.[3][4]

De large waters wey form during de African humid period give chance for lakeside fisher settlements to come up. Nilo-Saharan ethnic groups too migrate go Lake Chad during dat time. Farming also start for de Sahel around dis period.[5] By 1800 BC, one pottery culture wey people know as Gajiganna had appear. At first de people be pastoralists, but from around 1500 BC, dem start to live for settled hamlets near de lake.[6]

Archaeological discoveries show wild grasses, mainly from de tribe Paniceae, and wild rice, together with de earliest domesticated pearl millet for de Lake Chad region. Dem date dis to about 1200-1000 cal BC. One of de oldest domesticated pearl millet finds for West Africa come from de Chad Basin, charred together with wild grasses, and dem date am to 800-1000 cal BC.[7]

Permanent villages dey established south of de lake by 500 BC, and major archaeological discoveries include de Sao civilization.[8] According to Claudius Ptolemy ein records from de middle of de 2nd century AD, Romans from de 1st century AD had already get contact with Lake Chad through connections with Tunisia, Tripolitania den Fezzan.[9] By de 5th century AD, people dey use camels for trans-Saharan trade through Fezzan, or eastward through Darfur.[10]

After Arabs conquered North Africa for de 7th den 8th centuries, de Chad Basin become more connected to Muslim kontris.[11] Trade den better farming techniques help more complex societies to grow.[10] Around 900 AD, de Kanem people, wey speak Kanuri language, bring plenti nomadic tribes together and establish de Kanem Empire for northeast of Lake Chad. For de early years, Kanem people continue demma nomadic life until de 11th century, when dem accept Islam and settle for Njimi.

Through trans-Saharan trade, Kanem Empire ein power reach ein peak for de 13th century. As de empire decline for de 14th century, ein southwestern vassal state, Bornu, begin rise. Dis make de power centre shift to Bornu around 1400. For 1574, de Ottoman Empire invade Fezzan and de Oasis, and reach as far as Lake Chad.[12] Dis be one of de deepest Ottoman movements into Africa ein interior before de nineteenth century. During Sultan Murad III ein reign, Ottoman influence stretch into de central Sahel area, and Lake Chad enter Ottoman sphere of influence.[13]

For de second half of de 16th century, Bornu Empire begin import firearms from de Ottoman Empire, and dis help am strengthen ein military power. Bornu Empire decline for de 18th century, and later lose ein western area to de Sokoto Caliphate for de early 19th century. Later, European powers colonise de region for de 20th century.[14]

As European academic den business groups grow interest in Africa, Europeans describe Lake Chad area plenti during de 19th century. Three scientific expeditions happen between 1898 and 1909.[8] During de Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, European colonial powers divide Africa among demma selves.[15] By de second decade of de 20th century, Britain, France den Germany had colonised and occupied areas around Lake Chad, creating boundaries wey mostly remain with de present post-colonial states.[16]

At independence time, de kontris around Lake Chad no get strong economic foundation. Dem also get complex ethnic, religious den political conflicts. Nigeria den Niger, wey just gain independence, experience repeated coups, while Chad also experience continuing civil war. Because de lake-side kontris no fit work together strongly to protect Lake Chad, plenti environmental problems come up.[16]

Geography

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De Chad Basin include Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Sudan den de Central African Republic.[17] E be extensional fault-depression type rift basin. People fit divide am into four secondary structural units: southern depression, northern depression, central uplift den eastern slope. De southern depression get asymmetric fault-depression composite rift, with steep slopes for de east and gentle slopes for de west. For plan view, e dey distributed in NNW direction.

Two large basin-bounding normal faults develop on both sides of de basin, with graben-style fault den depression for de middle. De east and west sides be outward-dipping low-angle gentle slope areas. De eastern boundary fault be steep, with dip angle about 55 degrees, while de western fault get dip angle about 45 degrees. De inner-layer thickness for de slope area be relatively thin. For de central area of de basin, sedimentary strata be thick, and de sedimentary centre zone reach more than 10,000 m. De northern part of de basin look steep for west and gentle for east. Five fault structural zones wey dey parallel to de basin-bounding faults develop from west to east.[18]

Lake Chad dey divided into north den south parts by one shallow sill wey dem call de Great Barrier. De bottom of de northern basin dey at altitude 275.3 m, and de bottom of de southern basin dey at 278.2 m. When water level for de south pass 279 m above sea level, e go flow enter de north.[19]

For de south, continuous open water dey at de mouth of de Chari River. De western water area dey covered by reed swamps, and sand dunes wey no submerge fully for de eastern waters form an archipelago.[20][21] De average depth of de southern lake basin dey between 0.5 and 2 m. De northern lake basin dey between 0 and 1.8 m, and de eastern archipelago dey between 0 and 2 m.[22]

De climate of Lake Chad region dey strongly influenced by continental and maritime air masses. Maritime air mass dey move north during summer, and dis bring seasonal rainfall. Near late summer, continental air mass dominate again.[8] Average annual rainfall for de Lake Chad area be about 330 mm. De south bank get average of about 560 mm, while de north bank get about 250 mm. Highest rainy-season temperature be about 30 °C, and highest temperature pass 32 °C when October den November enter de dry season. Day-night temperature difference be almost two times bigger than wet-season difference, and night temperature sometimes fall to 8 °C for December den January. April normally be de hottest month, and temperature can reach 40 °C. Lowest water levels dey appear in June to July, while highest water levels dey appear in November to December. Surface water temperature dey range from 19 to 32 °C.[8][21]

Hydrology

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De Chad Basin cover about 1 x 106 km2, and Chari, Logone den Yobe Rivers dey flow enter am.[8][23] De lake ein water supply be seasonal. Most of de rainfall come from de Adamawa Plateau for south of de basin, and Chari River den Logone River carry am to de lake basin. Chari den Logone together give about 95% of Lake Chad ein total inflow, while Yobe River give less than 2.5%.[23]

De lake dey seep underground go de lowest point of de Chad Basin, de Bodele Depression, about 480 km northeast of Lake Chad. De deepest point of dat depression reach only 155 m above sea level. Dis underground loss remove most salinity and help Lake Chad stay low in salinity. De southwestern waters of Lake Chad be fresh water, while de northeast water be only slightly salty.[24][23]

De water volume of most large African lakes depend on rainfall den evaporation. Dis means temperature den rainfall be very important for controlling water balance, and any change fit make big changes in water level den surface area.[25] Lake Chad be shallow inland lake, and rainfall in de Chad Basin be very sensitive to small changes in atmospheric circulation. Because of dis, climate change strongly affects Lake Chad ein surface area.[26][27]

Dry climate linked to vegetation loss from overgrazing and deforestation, plus large irrigation projects wey divert water from rivers feeding de lake, be major reasons why Lake Chad shrink.[28] Atlantic multidecadal oscillation and El Nino-Southern Oscillation affect rainfall for de Sahel region. From de early 1960s to de mid-1980s, de lake water level fall by 3 m when compared with de average level from 1900 to 2010.[29]

For 1870, Lake Chad ein area be about 28,000 km2. During rainy season, de lake fit flow out through Bahr el-Ghazal. Around de turn of de 20th century, de lake shrink briefly, then reach new high for de middle of de 20th century and overflow from Bahr el-Ghazal again.[8] Major drought start for Sahel in de late 1960s and cause severe damage in 1972 and 1984. People link dis drought to vegetation loss, global warming and sea-surface temperature anomalies.[26] During dis period, Lake Chad shrink strongly and later fluctuate between about 2,000 and 5,000 km2.[19]

From June 1966 to January 1973, Lake Chad ein area shrink from 22,772 to 15,400 km2.[28] It reduce further to 4,398 km2 in 1975, and only 1,756 km2 in February 1994.[19][28] Since then, Lake Chad ein area enter more stable stage with small increase.[30] From 1995 to 1998, e move within 1,200 to 4,500 km2. De area reach 5,075 km2 in 2000, and average surface-water area from 2013 to 2016 be about 1,876 km2. De largest area during dat period be 2,231 km2 in July 2015.[31]

Quaternary aquifer den groundwater resilience

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Under de lake, one unconfined Quaternary phreatic aquifer dey. E be large transboundary water resource wey stretch about 500,000 km2 across Chad, Niger, Nigeria den Cameroon.[32] Although de lake lose about 2,200 mm of water every year through potential evapotranspiration, isotopic studies using stable isotopes den tritium show say de groundwater system under am remain highly resilient to climate change.[32][33]

De Quaternary aquifer dey recharge through two main processes: direct infiltration from intense seasonal rainfall, and lateral seepage from de lake plus temporary river channels.[33] Isotopic data show say heavy rainfall events above de 60th percentile of monthly rainfall intensity drive most of de diffuse recharge. Dis means projected stronger tropical downpours under global warming can support groundwater replenishment within de basin.[33] Dis wide underground reservoir be important hydrological buffer, because e helps provide permanent water access for municipal den agricultural pumping, even when surface water dey change extremely.[32]

Ecology

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Part of de Chad Basin dey inside Chad Basin National Park in Nigeria. Nigeria and Cameroon have also established Lake Chad Ramsar Wetland, with total area of 8,225 km2.[34]

Plant life

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Wetland plants for de south mainly include Cyperus papyrus and related plants. Reeds mainly grow for de north, where salinity be high. De floating plant Pistia sometimes cover large open-water areas. Plants like Hyparrhenia rufa grow on lake shores wey get long floods for de south.[34] Permanent vegetation area increase from about 3,800 km2 in 2000 to about 5,200 km2 in 2020 as water levels drop and temperatures rise.[35] De dense woodland around de lake has changed to open forest with acacias, baobabs, palms den Indian jujube.[8]

Birds

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BirdLife International designate de lake as an Important Bird Area (IBA).[36] Hundreds of bird species live there permanently or seasonally, including northern shoveler, Egyptian goose and marabou stork.[8] De lake be important wintering ground for European ducks and wading birds. Raptors like steppe eagle and booted eagle dey around de lakeshore.[34] More than one million ruffs fit dey observed on de lake at one time.[37]

Mammals

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Large mammals wey used to be common include red-fronted gazelle, dama gazelle, patas monkey, striped hyena, cheetah and caracal. African elephant, otter, hippopotamus, sitatunga and kob dey found for de wetlands. At present, hunters have removed most of de large mammals, and large numbers of cattle replace dem.[34]

Fish

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De whole Chad Basin get 179 fish species. Out of dis number, 127 also dey de Niger River Basin, 85 also dey de Nile River Basin, 47 also dey de Congo River Basin, and 84 fish species dey inside de lake itself.[23] Dis make de lake rich fishing ground for communities across Nigeria, Niger, Chad den Cameroon. Seasonal floods plus seasonal increases in air temperature reduce salinity, increase turbidity and raise trophic levels. Dis support increase in phytoplankton and zooplankton, and help large fish migrate seasonally within de watershed to feed and breed for fertile floodplains when floods come.[20]

Human activities

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More than 30 million people dey live inside de Lake Chad Basin. More than 70 ethnic groups dey around de lake, most of dem for de south bank, where population density pass 100 people per km2. Dem depend on Lake Chad ein water for irrigation, breeding, animal husbandry and drinking water.[24] Local self-sufficient crops include sorghum, maize, finger millet, beans and vegetables. People plant gourd plenti to make utensils. Collection of forest products like gum arabic, honey, beeswax and firewood also be important for de region. Reduction in forest area has affected these products negatively, and rapid growth of cattle herds has made de effect worse. Cattle be de most important livestock, together with poultry, goats, sheep, camels, horses and donkeys. De droughts of de 1970s and 1980s badly affect animal husbandry.[8]

Fishing traditionally be de most important economic activity for people living around de lake. It almost stop during drought periods and only resume around de mid-1990s. People dry, pickle or smoke most fish products. Natron from de depression on de northeast bank of de lake has long been economically important. Traditionally, people dig am in blocks and carry am across de lake to enter Nigerian markets.[8]

Since de drought of de 1970s, land wey fit support farming without irrigation and fertilizer has appeared at de bottom of de lake. People reclaim some of dis land as polder for maize, cowpea, rice, sorghum and other crops.[38] Farmers have shifted from mainly dry crops, like wheat, to rice, which needs more water. Dis has led to stronger soil salinisation and water eutrophication.[24] De negative effects of reduced water sources on fishing, farming and herding are bigger than de benefits of new land from receding water. Residents who used to depend on lake water had to relocate, and dis has made de lake-area economy continue to shrink.[39]

Since 1970, five countries for de southern part of de basin have built plenti water-conservancy projects upstream of Chari River, Logone River and Yobe River to intercept river water. Dis cause sharp reduction in water entering de lake. Average annual inflow from Chari River and Logone River between 1970 and 1990 be only 55% of de inflow between 1950 and 1970. Since de 1980s, one-third of water from Chari River and Logone River has been diverted and intercepted by Central African Republic upstream for farming irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.[24]

Dams built upstream of rivers entering de lake changed de timing and extent of seasonal floods. Dem also disrupt fish migration, reducing populations of Alestes baremoze and Nile perch, which be main catches of Lake Chad. Fish catch reduce strongly.[37][23] At de same time, conflicts among countries and ethnic groups competing for water and land are growing. De four countries around de lake all face extreme poverty, and because livelihoods be difficult, some local residents have become involved in drug and arms trade.[24] Boko Haram insurgency has made de situation worse by displacing millions of people and disrupting development across de region.[40]

Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad establish de Lake Chad Basin Commission on 22 May 1964. Central African Republic join in 1996, and Libya join in 2008. De commission ein headquarters dey N'Djamena, Chad. De commission ein work include managing Lake Chad and ein water resources, protecting de ecosystem, and promoting regional integration, peace, security and development for Lake Chad region.[41] One water-replenishment plan for Lake Chad propose construction of a 2,400 km canal to carry 100 x 109 m3 of water every year from Congo River Basin to Chari River Basin, while a series of dams along de route generate electricity.[42]

Ramsar wetland designations

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Lake Chad and some of ein wetlands get Ramsar designations across different countries. Lac Tchad was designated on 17 June 2001 with reference number 1072.[43] Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad was designated on 14 August 2001 with reference number 1134.[44] Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria was designated on 30 April 2008 with reference number 1749.[45] Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad was designated on 2 February 2010 with reference number 1903.[46]

Sanso spy

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References

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  1. ↑ Obaje, Nuhu George (2009). Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria. Springer. p. 69. ISBN 978-3-540-92684-9.
  2. ↑ Wright, J. B. (1985). Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa. Springer. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-04-556001-1.
  3. ↑ Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Maley, J.; Nazoumou, Y.; Leduc, C.; Stagnitti, F.; van Oevelen, P. J.; Delclaux, F.; Lemoalle, J. (2006). "Reconstruction of Megalake Chad using Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission data". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 239 (1-2): 16-27. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.01.003.
  4. ↑ Mathieu Schuster; Claude Roquin; Philippe Duringer; Michel Brunet; Matthieu Caugy; Michel Fontugne; Hassan Taisso Mackaye; Patrick Vignaud; Jean-Francois Ghienne (2005). "Holocene Lake Mega-Chad palaeoshorelines from space". Quaternary Science Reviews. 24 (16-17): 1821-1827. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.001.
  5. ↑ Kevin Shillington (2018). History of Africa. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 19-31. ISBN 9781137524812.
  6. ↑ Ogundiran, Akinwumi (2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.-A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives". Journal of World Prehistory. 19 (2): 138. doi:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y.
  7. ↑ Marlies Klee; Barbara Zach (1999). "The Exploitation of Wild and Domesticated Food Plants at Settlement Mounds in North-East Nigeria (1800 cal BC to Today)". The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient Africa. pp. 81-88. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-6730-8_8.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Gritzner, J. A. "Lake Chad". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
  9. ↑ Johnston, H. H. (1910). "Lake Chad". Nature. 84 (2130): 244-245. doi:10.1038/084244a0.
  10. 1 2 Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (2010). Encyclopaedia of Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.
  11. ↑ Decorse, Christopher R. (2001). West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7185-0247-8.
  12. ↑ Lange, Dierk (2004). Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa: African-centred and Canaanite-Israelite Perspectives. J. H. Roll Verlag. ISBN 978-3-89754-115-3.
  13. ↑ Flynn, Sebastien (2016). "The Relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Kanem-Bornu during the Reign of Sultan Murad III". Bilkent Master's Thesis.
  14. ↑ Kevin Shillington (2018). History of Africa. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 101-103, 188-190, 249-256. ISBN 9781137524812.
  15. ↑ Harlow, Barbara (2003). "Conference of Berlin (1884-1885)". In Colonialism. ABC-CLIO. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3.
  16. 1 2 Xiong Zhengkun; Zhang Jin (2021). "Lake Chad: From 'Cradle of Civilization' to 'Heart of Death'". China Water Resources News. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  17. ↑ "about-map". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
  18. ↑ Huang Xianxiong; Xia Bin; Wan Zhifeng; Lu Baofeng; Cai Zhourong (2008). "A preliminary study on the tectonic characteristics and hydrocarbon accumulation law of the Lake Chad Basin". Geotectonica et Metallogenia (3): 326-331. doi:10.16539/j.ddgzyckx.2008.03.013.
  19. 1 2 3 Liu Tiantian; Liu Ronggao; Ge Quansheng (2013). "Monitoring of water surface change in Lake Chad in Africa based on multi-source remote sensing data". Progress in Geography. 32 (6): 906-912. doi:10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.06.007.
  20. 1 2 Marie-Therese Sarch; Charon Birkett (2000). "Fishing and farming at Lake Chad: Responses to lake-level fluctuations". The Geographical Journal. 166 (2): 156-172. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2000.tb00015.x.
  21. 1 2 Wen Yunzhao. "Lake Chad". Encyclopedia of China (03 ed.). Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
  22. ↑ Jacques Lemoalle; Jean-Claude Bader; Marc Leblanc; Ahmed Sedick (2012). "Recent changes in Lake Chad: Observations, simulations and management options (1973-2011)". Global and Planetary Change. 80-81: 247-254. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.07.004.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). A Directory of African Wetlands. IUCN / UNEP / WCMC. pp. 329-330. ISBN 2-88032-949-3.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 Yuan Xuanmin (2016). "The environment, security and vulnerability of Lake Chad". World Science (7): 21-23.
  25. ↑ Richard Ogutu-Ohwayo; Vianny Natugonza; Laban Musinguzi; Mark Olokotum; Shamim Naigaga (2016). "Implications of climate variability and change for African lake ecosystems, fisheries productivity, and livelihoods". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 42 (3): 498-510. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2016.03.004.
  26. 1 2 Evans, T. (1996). "The effects of changes in the world hydrological cycle on availability of water resources". In Bazzaz, F.; Sombroek, W. (eds.). Global climate change and agricultural production. FAO / John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 92-5-103987-9.
  27. ↑ Leblanc, M.; Favreau, G.; Tweed, S. (2007). "Remote sensing for groundwater modelling in large semiarid areas: Lake Chad Basin, Africa". Hydrogeology Journal. 15 (1): 97-100. doi:10.1007/s10040-006-0126-0.
  28. 1 2 3 "Lake Chad: almost gone". United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Retrieved 5 December 2015.
  29. ↑ Churchill Okonkwo; Belay Demoz; Ricardo Sakai; Charles Ichoku; Chigozie Anarado; Jimmy Adegoke; Angelina Amadou; Sanusi Imran Abdullahi; Nir Krakauer (2015). "Combined effect of El Nino southern oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation on Lake Chad level variability". Cogent Geoscience. 1 (1). doi:10.1080/23312041.2015.1117829.
  30. ↑ Wengbin Zhu; Jiabao Yan; Shaofeng Jia (2017). "Monitoring Recent Fluctuations of the Southern Pool of Lake Chad Using Multiple Remote Sensing Data: Implications for Water Balance Analysis". Remote Sensing. 9 (10): 1032. doi:10.3390/rs9101032.
  31. ↑ Willibroad Gabila Buma; Sang-Il Lee; Jae Young Seo (2018). "Recent surface water extent of Lake Chad from multispectral sensors and GRACE". Sensors. 18 (7): 2082. doi:10.3390/s18072082.
  32. 1 2 3 Mahamat Nour, A.; Huneau, F.; Mahamat Ali, A.; Vystavna, Y. (2022). "Shallow Quaternary groundwater in the Lake Chad basin is resilient to climate change but requires sustainable management strategy: Results of isotopic investigation". Science of The Total Environment. 848: 158152. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158152.
  33. 1 2 3 Goni, I. B.; Sherif, A. M.; Taylor, R. G. (2021). "Groundwater recharge from heavy rainfall in the southwestern Lake Chad Basin: evidence from isotopic observations". Hydrological Sciences Journal. 66 (10): 1521-1534. doi:10.1080/02626667.2021.1937630.
  34. 1 2 3 4 Emma Martin; Neil Burgess (2021). "Lake Chad Flooded Savanna". One Earth. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
  35. ↑ Binh Pham-Duc; Florence Sylvestre; Fabrice Papa; Frederic Frappart; Camille Bouchez; Jean-Francois Cretaux (2020). "The Lake Chad hydrology under current climate change". Scientific Reports. 10: 5498. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-62417-w.
  36. ↑ "Lake Chad". BirdLife Data Zone. BirdLife International. Retrieved 30 October 2024.
  37. 1 2 Keith, J. O.; Plowes, D. C. H. (1997). Considerations of Wildlife Resources and Land Use in Chad. Office of Sustainable Development, Africa Bureau, USAID. SD Technical Paper No. 45.
  38. ↑ Luxereau, A.; Genthon, P.; Ambouta, J.-M. K. (2011). "Fluctuations in the Size of Lake Chad: Consequences on the Livelihoods of the Riverain Peoples in Eastern Niger". Regional Environmental Change. 12 (3): 507-521. doi:10.1007/s10113-011-0267-0.
  39. ↑ Roman D. Zarate; Remi Jedwab; Federico Haslop; Carlos Rodriguez-Castelan (2023). "The Effects of Climate Change in the Poorest Countries: Evidence from the Permanent Shrinking of Lake Chad". World Bank. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
  40. ↑ Olowoyeye, Oluwatuyi S.; Kanwar, Rameshwar S. (2023). "Water and Food Sustainability in the Riparian Countries of Lake Chad in Africa". Sustainability. 15 (13): 10009. doi:10.3390/su151310009.
  41. ↑ "About us". Lake Chad Basin Commission. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
  42. ↑ Ross, Will (2018). "Can the vanishing lake be saved?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  43. ↑ "Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  44. ↑ "Partie tchadienne du lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  45. ↑ "Lake Chad Wetlands in Nigeria". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.
  46. ↑ "Partie Camerounaise du Lac Tchad". Ramsar Sites Information Service. Retrieved 25 April 2018.

Further reading

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  • Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S. (1992). A Directory of African Wetlands. IUCN. ISBN 978-2-88032-949-5.
  • Beadle, L. C. (1974). The Inland Waters of Tropical Africa: An Introduction to Tropical Limnology. Longman Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0582448520.
  • Chapman, Graham; Baker, Kathleen M. (1992). The changing geography of Africa and the Middle East. Routledge. ISBN 9780203034507.
  • Caterina Batello; Marzio Marzot; Adamou Harouna Toure (2004). The Future is an Ancient Lake. FAO Interdepartmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture. ISBN 92-5-105064-3.
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Dem retrieve am from "https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lake_Chad&oldid=99346"