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Lake Tanganyika

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Lake Tanganyika
lake
Part ofAfrican Great Lakes, Rift Valley lakes Edit
Native labelIkiyaga ca Tanganyika, Ziwa Tanganyika, Lake Tanganyika, lac Tanganyika Edit
InflowsRuzizi River, Malagarasi River, Kalambo River, Mulobozi Edit
OutflowsLukuga River Edit
Drainage basinCongo Basin Edit
Basin countryBurundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Zambia Edit
CountryTanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Zambia Edit
Coordinate location6°6′0″S 29°30′0″E Edit
Lowest pointunknown value Edit
Category for maps or plansCategory:Maps of Lake Tanganyika Edit
Map

Lake Tanganyika (Kirundi: Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika; Swahili: Ziwa Tanganyika) be one African Great Lake.[1] E be de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume, den e san be de second deepest lake for de world, after Lake Baikal for Siberia.[2][3] E san be de world ein longest freshwater lake, den de sixth-largest lake by area.[4] Four countries dey share de lake: Tanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi den Zambia. Tanzania get about 46% of de lake, while Democratic Republic of the Congo get about 40%. De lake drain through Lukuga River enter Congo River system, wey later enter Atlantic Ocean for Banana, Democratic Republic of de Congo.[5]

Geography

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Lake Tanganyika dey insyd de Albertine Rift, wey be de western branch of de East African Rift. Mountain walls of de valley surround am. E be de largest rift lake for Africa and de second-largest freshwater lake by volume for de world. E be de deepest lake for Africa, den e hold de largest freshwater volume for de continent, about 16% of de world ein available fresh water.[5][6] De lake stretch about 676 km from north to south, and ein average width be about 50 km. E cover about 32,000 km2, get shoreline of about 1,900 km, mean depth of about 572 m, den maximum depth of about 1,471 m for de northern basin. E hold estimated water volume of about 18,750 km3.[5][6]

De lake ein catchment area be about 231,000 km2. Two main rivers, plus plenty small rivers and streams, flow enter de lake. Because steep mountains surround de lake, plenty of de rivers and streams no dey long. De only major outflow be Lukuga River, wey empty into Congo River drainage. Rainfall and evaporation play bigger role for de lake ein water balance than rivers. At least 90% of de water wey enter de lake come from rain wey fall directly on de lake surface, and at least 90% of de water loss come from direct evaporation.[7]

De main river wey flow enter de lake be Ruzizi River. E form about 10,000 years ago, and e enter de northern side of de lake from Lake Kivu.[8] Malagarasi River, wey be Tanzania ein second-largest river, enter de eastern side of Lake Tanganyika.[8] Malagarasi be older than Lake Tanganyika, and before de lake form, e likely be headwater of de Lualaba River, de main headstream of Congo River.[7]

De lake get complex history for how water flow patterns dey change. De reason dey include ein high altitude, great depth, slow refill rate, and mountain location inside volcanic area wey climate changes affect. For de past, de lake rarely get outflow to de sea, so some scholars describe am as almost endorheic. De lake ein connection to sea depend on high water level wey allow water overflow through Lukuga River into Congo River.[8] When de lake no dey overflow, sand bars and weed masses normally block de exit into Lukuga River, and de river then depend on ein own tributaries, especially Niemba River, to maintain flow.[7]

For some periods, de lake fit get different inflows and outflows. Scholars propose say water from higher Lake Rukwa, access to Lake Malawi, den one exit route to de Nile fit exist for some time inside de lake ein history.[9]

Lake Taganyika ein eastern shore for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania

Lake Tanganyika be ancient lake, one of only about twenty lakes wey dey more than one million years old. Ein three basins were separate lakes during periods wey water level drop very low. De central basin begin form about 9-12 million years ago, de northern basin about 7-8 million years ago, and de southern basin about 2-4 million years ago.[10]

Water characteristics

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Clear water lake of Lake Tanganyika for Kagongo Ward, Kigoma Region, Tanzania

De lake ein water be alkaline. De pH be around 9 from 0 to 100 m depth.[11] Below dat level, de pH be around 8.7, and e gradually fall to 8.3-8.5 for de deepest parts of Tanganyika.[11] Electric conductivity follow similar pattern, from about 670 μS/cm for de upper part to about 690 μS/cm for de deepest part.[11]

Surface temperature normally range from about 24 °C for de southern part of de lake during early August to about 28-29 °C during late rainy season around March-April.[12] For depths greater than 400 m, de temperature remain very stable around 23.1-23.4 °C.[13] De lake water has gradually warmed since de 19th century, and dis warming has become faster since de 1950s because of global warming.[14]

De lake dey stratified, and seasonal mixing normally no pass depth of 150 m.[12] Mixing happen mainly through wind-driven upwellings for de south, even though upwellings and downwellings also occur for some other parts of de lake.[15] Sake of de stratification, de deep sections contain "fossil water".[16] De deeper parts lack oxygen, so fish and other aerobic organisms mostly dey limited to de upper part of de lake. Dis oxygen limit normally dey around 100 m depth for de northern part and around 240-250 m for de southern part.[17][18] De deepest oxygen-free sections contain high levels of toxic hydrogen sulfide and be almost lifeless,[2] except bacteria.[11][19]

Biology

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Reptiles

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Lake Tanganyika and ein associated wetlands get Nile crocodiles, wey dey include de famous giant crocodile Gustave. De area also get Zambian hinged terrapins, serrated hinged terrapins, den pan hinged terrapins.[20] Storm's water cobra, wey be threatened subspecies of banded water cobra, dey feed mainly on fish and only dey Lake Tanganyika, where e prefer rocky shores.[20][21]

Cichlid fishes

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Lake Tanganyika get at least 250 endemic species of cichlids,[22] den more undescribed species likely still dey.[23] Almost all de lake ein cichlid species, about 98%, dey only there. Because of dis, de lake be important biological resource for studying speciation and evolution.[24][25] Cichlids of de African Great Lakes, including Tanganyika, represent one of de most diverse examples of adaptive radiation among vertebrates.[26]

Some endemic species enter small part of de upper Lukuga River, wey be Lake Tanganyika ein outflow. Further spread into Congo River basin be limited by geography and water chemistry. Tanganyika lake environment be more stable than de rapids and fast-flowing sections of Congo River. De lake water be alkaline, get higher pH, and contain more calcium and minerals than Congo River acidic and sediment-rich waters. For some areas of Congo away from rapids, sediment and organic matter create blackwater with high tannin concentration from wood and leaves, and cichlids no thrive well there.[7]

Lake Tanganyika get fewer cichlid species than Lake Malawi anaa Lake Victoria, but ein cichlids be more morphologically and genetically diverse.[26][27] Dis link to de old age of Tanganyika, because de lake be much older than those lakes. Tanganyika get de largest number of endemic cichlid genera among African lakes.[28][29]

All Tanganyika cichlids dey inside subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. Out of de 10 tribes inside dis subfamily, half dey largely or completely restricted to de lake: Cyprichromini, Ectodini, Lamprologini, Limnochromini den Tropheini.[30] Another three tribes, Haplochromini, Tilapiini den Tylochromini, also get species inside de lake. Some researchers propose say Tanganyika cichlids fit be split into as many as 12-16 tribes, including Bathybatini, Benthochromini, Boulengerochromini, Cyphotilapiini, Eretmodini, Greenwoodochromini, Perissodini den Trematocarini.[26]

Most Tanganyika cichlids live along de shoreline down to about 100 m depth, but some deep-water species regularly descend to 200 m.[31] Trematocara species have been found at more than 300 m depth, deeper than any known cichlid.[32] Some deepwater genera, such as Bathybates, Gnathochromis, Hemibates den Xenochromis, have been caught for places wey almost no oxygen dey, and how dem survive there still no dey clear.[18]

Tanganyika cichlids normally be benthic, meaning dem dey near de bottom, or coastal. No Tanganyika cichlid be truly pelagic and offshore, except some piscivorous Bathybates. Two of dem, B. fasciatus den B. leo, mainly feed on Tanganyika sardines.[18][31][33] De cichlids get plenty feeding styles, including herbivores, detritivores, planktivores, insectivores, molluscivores, scavengers, scale-eaters and piscivores. Even species with specialized diets fit change and feed opportunistically on Stolothrissa tanganicae and Limnothrissa miodon when prey concentration rise high.[23][34]

Breeding behavior among de fishes fall into two main groups: substrate or sand spawners, often for caves or rock crevices, and mouthbrooders.[35] Among de endemic species, two of de world ein smallest cichlids be Neolamprologus multifasciatus and N. similis. Both be shell dwellers and grow only about 4-5 cm. One of de largest be giant cichlid, Boulengerochromis microlepis, which fit reach 90 cm.[23][36][37][38]

Many Lake Tanganyika cichlids, including species from Altolamprologus, Cyprichromis, Eretmodus, Julidochromis, Lamprologus, Neolamprologus, Tropheus den Xenotilapia, be popular aquarium fishes because of dem bright colours, patterns and interesting behaviour. Aquarium hobbyists also like to recreate Lake Tanganyika biotope, and many of de species dey bred successfully in captivity today.[35][39]

Neolamprologus brichardi and ein close relative N. pulcher get complex social behaviours, and researchers have studied dem in detail.[40][41][42]

Cichlid tribes for Lake Tanganyika

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  • Bathybatini (endemic or near-endemic): Bathybates ferox be benthic and piscivorous, but de genus also get pelagic species. Some researchers split de tribe into three, with Hemibatini and Trematocarini as other groups.[31][43][44]
  • Benthochromini (endemic or near-endemic): Benthochromis horii was scientifically described in 2008, but people often misidentify am as B. tricoti.[45]
  • Boulengerochromini (endemic or near-endemic): Boulengerochromis microlepis be one of de world ein largest cichlids and de only member of ein tribe.[38][44]
  • Cyphotilapiini (endemic or near-endemic): Cyphotilapia frontosa be one of two similar species inside de tribe.[46]
  • Cyprichromini (endemic or near-endemic): Cyprichromis microlepidotus and other members of dis tribe be open-water planktivores.[47][48]
  • Ectodini (endemic or near-endemic): Male Ophthalmotilapia nasuta be more colourful, get longer fins and longer nose than female.[49]
  • Eretmodini (endemic or near-endemic): Eretmodus cyanostictus live near de bottom for turbulent coastal surf zone, like other members of ein tribe.[48][50]
  • Haplochromini: Astatotilapia burtoni be one of de few Tanganyika species inside dis tribe, unlike other African Great Lakes where plenty species belong to dis tribe.[51][52]
  • Lamprologini (endemic or near-endemic): Julidochromis marlieri dey popular for aquarium trade, where members of de genus dey known as "Julies".[53]
  • Limnochromini (endemic or near-endemic): Gnathochromis permaxillaris be zooplanktivore with unusual protractile mouth.[54]
  • Perissodini (endemic or near-endemic): Perissodus microlepis be specialized scale-eating species.[55]
  • Tilapiini: Oreochromis tanganicae be one of de common coastal species wey dey local fish markets.[56]
  • Tropheini (endemic or near-endemic): Tropheus moorii, including de "red" Chimba morph, vary plenty, and de taxonomy of some morphs still dey debated.[57][58][59]

Oda fish

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Lake Tanganyika get more than 80 species of non-cichlid fish, and about 60% of dem be endemic.[17][22][60][61] For de open waters of de pelagic zone, four non-cichlid species dominate. Two species of "Tanganyika sardine", Limnothrissa miodon den Stolothrissa tanganicae, form de largest fish biomass for dat zone. Dem be important prey for forktail lates, Lates microlepis, and sleek lates, L. stappersii. Two other lates, L. angustifrons den L. mariae, also dey de lake, but dem be mainly benthic hunters. All four lates be endemic to Tanganyika, and overfishing has made larger individuals rare today.[33]

One unusual fish group for de lake be endemic facultative brood-parasitic "cuckoo catfish", wey dey include Synodontis grandiops and S. multipunctatus. Some similar species, such as S. lucipinnis and S. petricola, are often confused with dem, and e no dey clear if dem get de same behaviour. De brood parasites often lay eggs at de same time as mouthbrooding cichlids. De cichlid pick de eggs into ein mouth as if dem be ein own. When de catfish eggs hatch, de young ones eat de cichlid eggs.[17][35][62][63]

Six catfish genera dey completely restricted to de lake basin: Bathybagrus, Dinotopterus, Lophiobagrus, Phyllonemus, Pseudotanganikallabes and Tanganikallabes. Six species of Chrysichthys catfish are only found inside de Tanganyika basin, even though de genus itself no be endemic. Dem live for shallow and relatively deep waters. For de deep habitat, dem be main predators and scavengers.[18][51][64]

De lake get unique evolutionary radiation of 15 Mastacembelus spiny eels, all except one endemic to de basin. Other African Great Lakes also get Synodontis catfish, endemic catfish genera and Mastacembelus spiny eels, but Tanganyika ein high diversity be unusual and likely link to de lake ein old age.[60][65]

Some non-endemic fish for de lake be widespread African species, while others are shared only with Malagarasi and Congo River basins. Examples include Congo bichir (Polypterus congicus), goliath tigerfish (Hydrocynus goliath), Citharinus citharus, six-banded distichodus (Distichodus sexfasciatus) and mbu puffer (Tetraodon mbu).[51] De Tanganyika killifish, Lamprichthys tanganicanus, be de only member of ein genus.[66]

Molluscs den crustaceans

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Lake Tanganyika get 83 freshwater snail species, of which 65 be endemic, and 11 bivalve species, of which 8 be endemic.[67] Among de endemic bivalves, three genera get only one species each: Grandidieria burtoni, Pseudospatha tanganyicensis den Brazzaea anceyi.[67]

Many of de snails no be ordinary for freshwater species because dem get thick shells or strong shell sculpture, features common among marine snails. People call dem thalassoids, meaning "marine-like". All Tanganyika thalassoids be part of Prosobranchia and be endemic to de lake. At first, people believed say dem relate to similar marine snails, but researchers now know say dem no be related. Their shape likely come from de lake ein diverse habitats and evolutionary pressure from snail-eating fish and Platythelphusa crabs.[22][68][69]

Seventeen freshwater snail genera be endemic to de lake, including Hirthia, Lavigeria, Paramelania, Reymondia, Spekia, Stanleya, Tanganyicia and Tiphobia.[68] About 30 non-thalassoid snail species dey de lake, but only five of dem be endemic, including Ferrissia tanganyicensis and Neothauma tanganyicense. Neothauma tanganyicense be de largest Tanganyika snail, and small shell-dwelling cichlids often use ein shell.[68][70]

Crustaceans sanso be highly diverse for Tanganyika. De lake get more dan 200 species, den more dan half be endemic. Dem include 10 species of freshwater crabs, plus 9 Platythelphusa species den Potamonautes platynotus, all endemic; at least 11 species of small atyid shrimp from Atyella, Caridella den Limnocaridina; one endemic palaemonid shrimp, Macrobrachium moorei; about 100 ostracods, wey dey include chaw endemics; den several copepods.[22][71][72][73][74][75][76][77]

Limnocaridina iridinae live inside de mantle cavity of de unionid mussel Pleiodon spekei. Dis make am one of only two known commensal freshwater shrimp species; de other be sponge-living Caridina spongicola from Lake Towuti for Indonesia.[78][79]

Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika pass all others for crustacean den freshwater snail richness, both by total number of species den number of endemics. For example, de only other Rift Valley lakes plus endemic freshwater crabs be Lake Kivu den Lake Victoria, plus two species each.[80][81][82]

Oda invertebrates

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Knowledge about other invertebrate groups for Lake Tanganyika no dey complete. Still, researchers have described at least 20 species of leeches, wey dey include 12 endemics; 9 sponges, plus 7 endemic; 6 bryozoa, plus 2 endemic; 11 flatworms, plus 7 endemic; 20 nematodes, plus 7 endemic; 28 annelids, plus 17 endemic; den de small hydrozoan jellyfish Limnocnida tanganyicae.[22][83][84]

Fishing

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Lake Tanganyika support major fishery. Depending on de source, de fishery provide 25-40% or about 60% of animal protein for people wey live inside de region.[14][85][86] Fish from Lake Tanganyika dey exported across East Africa. Major commercial fishing begin for de mid-1950s. Together with global warming, fishing pressure has affected fish populations and caused sharp declines. In 2016, de total catch was estimated to reach up to 200,000 tonnes.[13][14][86]

History

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Early Homo sapiens likely affected de Lake Tanganyika region during de Stone Age. De period from Middle Stone Age to Late Stone Age dey described as age of advanced hunter-gatherers.[87]

Local people around de lake used many fishing methods. Most of de methods used lantern as lure because some fish dey attracted to light. Three common methods were Lusenga, lift net, and Chiromila. Lusenga be wide net wey one person use from canoe. Lift net involve dropping net deep below boat with two parallel canoes, then pulling am up together. Chiromila use three canoes: one canoe stay with lantern, another hold one end of de net, and de third canoe circle round to meet de net.[88]

De first known Westerners to find de lake were British explorers Richard Burton den John Speke insyd 1858. Dem located de lake when dem dey search for de source of de Nile River. Speke continue den later find Lake Victoria, de actual source. Later, David Livingstone pass by de lake. He record de name "Liemba" for de southern part, likely from Fipa language. "Tanganyika" wey mean "stars" in Luvale language.[89][90]

During World War I, de lake became de scene of de Battle for Lake Tanganyika. With help from Graf Goetzen, de Germans controll de lake at de early stage of de war. De ship carried cargo den people across de lake, den sanso serve as base for surprise attacks on Allied troops. Secof dis, Allied forces need to control de lake. Under Lieutenant Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, de British Royal Navy move two armed motor boats, HMS Mimi den HMS Toutou, from England to de lake by rail, road den river to Albertville, now Kalemie, on de western shore of Lake Tanganyika. Insyd December 1915, de two boats attacked de Germans and captured de gunboat Kingani. Another German vessel, Hedwig, be sunk insyd February 1916, leaving Götzen as de only German vessel controlling de lake. To stop Allied forces from taking de ship, Zimmer scuttled am on 26 July 1916. Dem later raise de vessel insyd 1924 wey dem rename am MV Liemba.[91]

References

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  1. ↑ Burton, Richard Francis (1965). Richards, Charles (ed.). Burton and Lake Tanganyika. Dar Es Salaam: East African Literature Bureau. OCLC 180480726.
  2. 1 2 "Lake Tanganyika". Zambia Tourism (in American English). Retrieved 2026-05-31.
  3. ↑ Lewis, R. (16 May 2010). "Brown Geologists Show Unprecedented Warming in Lake Tanganyika". Brown University. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
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  8. 1 2 3 Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). Natural Wonders of the World. US: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. pp. 366-367. ISBN 978-0-89577-087-5.
  9. ↑ Lévêque, Christian (1997). Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-521-57033-6.
  10. ↑ Cohen; Soreghan; Scholz (1993). "Estimating the age of formation of lakes: An example from Lake Tanganyika, East African Rift system". Geology. 21 (6): 511-514. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0511:ETAOFO>2.3.CO;2.
  11. 1 2 3 4 De Wever; Muylaert; Van der Gucht; Pirlot; Cocquyt; Descy; Plisnier; Vyverman (2005). "Bacterial Community Composition in Lake Tanganyika: Vertical and Horizontal Heterogeneity". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71 (9): 5029-5037. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5029-5037.2005.
  12. 1 2 Edmond; Stallard; Craigh; Weiss; Coulter (1993). "Nutrient chemistry of the water column of Lake Tanganyika". Limnology and Oceanography. 38 (4): 725-738. doi:10.4319/lo.1993.38.4.0725.
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  16. ↑ Hutter; Yongqi; Chubarenko (2011). Physics of Lakes, volume 1: Foundation of the Mathematical and Physical Background. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-642-15178-1.
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  19. ↑ Ryan, Emily; Todd, Jonathan A.; McGlue, Michael; Kimirei, Ismael; Soreghan, Michael (2017). "Variation in Taphonomic Character of Shell Beds in Lake Tanganyika, Africa: Paleoenvironmental and Stratigraphic Implications of Shell Beds in Lakes". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 304608. doi:10.1130/abs/2017am-304608.
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  21. ↑ O'Shea, Mark; Mcintyre, P.B. (2005). "Boulengerina annulata stormsi (Storm's water cobra). Attempted predation". Herpetological Review. 36 (2): 189.
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  23. 1 2 3 Craig Mortiff (24 December 2009). "Lake Tanganyika and its Diverse Cichlids". Cichlid Fish Forum.
  24. ↑ Takahashi, T.; Hori, M. (2012). "Genetic and Morphological Evidence Implies Existence of Two Sympatric Species in Cyathopharynx furcifer from Lake Tanganyika". International Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 2012: 980879. doi:10.1155/2012/980879.
  25. ↑ Kornfield, Ivy; Smith, Peter A. (2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 31: 163-196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.
  26. 1 2 3 Meyer, Britta; Matchiner, Michael; Salburger, Walter (2013). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.
  27. ↑ Seehausen, O. (2015). "Process and pattern in cichlid radiations - inferences for understanding unusually high rates of evolutionary diversification". New Phytologist. 207 (2): 304-312. doi:10.1111/nph.13450.
  28. ↑ Turner, Seehausen; Knight, Allender; Robinson (2001). "How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes?" Molecular Ecology. 10 (3): 793-806. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x.
  29. ↑ Nishida, M. (1991). "Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary reservoir of old lineages of East African cichlid fishes: Inferences from allozyme data". Experientia. 47 (9): 974-979. doi:10.1007/bf01929896.
  30. ↑ Sparks; Smith (2004). "Phylogeny and biogeography of cichlid fishes". Cladistics. 20 (6): 501-517. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00038.x.
  31. 1 2 3 Kirchberger; Sefc; Sturmbauer; Koblmuller (2012). "Evolutionary History of Lake Tanganyika's Predatory Deepwater Cichlids". International Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 2012: 716209. doi:10.1155/2012/716209.
  32. ↑ Loiselle, Paul (1994). The Cichlid Aquarium. p. 304. Tetra Press, Germany. ISBN 978-1564651464.
  33. 1 2 Lindqvist, O.V.; Mölsä, H.; Solonen, K.; Sarvala, J., editors (1999). From Limnology to Fisheries: Lake Tanganyika and Other Large Lakes. pp. 213-214. Springer. ISBN 978-0792360179.
  34. ↑ Golcher-Benavides J.; Wagner C.E. (2019). "Playing out Liem's Paradox: Opportunistic Piscivory across Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids". The American Naturalist. 194 (2): 260-267. doi:10.1086/704169.
  35. 1 2 3 Schliewen, U. (1992). Aquarium Fish. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812013504.
  36. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus multifasciatus". FishBase. March 2017 version.
  37. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Neolamprologus similis". FishBase. March 2017 version.
  38. 1 2 "The 10 biggest cichlids". Practical Fishkeeping. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
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  41. ↑ Balshine-Earn; Lotem (1998). "Individual recognition in a cooperatively breeding cichlid: Evidence from video playback experiments". Behaviour. 135 (3): 369-386. doi:10.1163/156853998793066221.
  42. ↑ Werner; Balshine; Leach; Lotem (2003). "Helping opportunities and space segregation in cooperatively breeding cichlids". Behavioral Ecology. 14 (6): 749-756. doi:10.1093/beheco/arg067.
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  44. 1 2 Weiss; Cotterill; Schliewen (2015). "A tribal level phylogeny of Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes based on a genomic multi-marker approach". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 83: 56-71. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.10.009.
  45. ↑ Takahashi, T. (2008). "Description of a new cichlid fish species of the genus Benthochromis from Lake Tanganyika". Journal of Fish Biology. 72 (3): 603-613. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01727.x.
  46. ↑ Takahashi, T.; Nakaya, K. (2003). "New species of Cyphotilapia from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". Copeia. 2003 (4): 824-832. doi:10.1643/ia03-148.1.
  47. ↑ Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Cyprichromis microlepidotus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T60487A12363286. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60487A12363286.en.
  48. 1 2 Smith, M.P. (1998). Lake Tanganyikan Cichlids. pp. 9-10. ISBN 0-7641-0615-5.
  49. ↑ "Ophthalmotilapia nasuta". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  50. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Eretmodus cyanostictus". FishBase. April 2017 version.
  51. 1 2 3 "Species in the Tanganyika". FishBase table. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  52. ↑ Lowe-McConnell, R. (2009). "Fisheries and cichlid evolution in the African Great Lakes: progress and problems". Freshwater Reviews. 2 (2): 131-151. doi:10.1608/frj-2.2.2.
  53. ↑ "Julidochromis marlieri (Marlier's Julie)". Seriously Fish. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  54. ↑ Bigirimana, C. (2006). "Gnathochromis permaxillaris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T60493A12364587. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60493A12364587.en.
  55. ↑ Stewart, T.A.; Albertson, R.C. (2010). "Evolution of a unique predatory feeding apparatus". BMC Biology. 8 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-8-8.
  56. ↑ Ntakimazi, G. (2006). "Oreochromis tanganicae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T60625A12387918. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60625A12387918.en.
  57. ↑ Begon, M.; Fitter, A.H. (1995). Advances in Ecological Research, vol. 26, p. 203. ISBN 0-12-013926-X.
  58. ↑ Salzburger; Niederstätter; Brandstätter; Berger; Parson; Snoeks; Sturmbauer (2006). "Colour-assortative mating among populations of Tropheus moorii". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 273 (1584): 257-266. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3321.
  59. ↑ Robert Toman (2017). "Tropheus Genus Evolution". Cichlid World. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  60. 1 2 Brown; Britz; Bills; Rüber; Day (2011). "Pectoral fin loss in the Mastacembelidae: a new species from Lake Tanganyika". Journal of Zoology. 284 (4): 286-293. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00804.x.
  61. ↑ Wright, J.J.; Bailey, R.M. (2012). "Systematic revision of the formerly monotypic genus Tanganikallabes". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 165 (1): 121-142. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00789.x.
  62. ↑ "Synodontis grandiops - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  63. ↑ "Synodontis lucipinnis - Mochokidae" and "Synodontis petricola - Mochokidae". PlanetCatfish. 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  64. ↑ Wright, J.J. (2017). "A new diminutive genus and species of catfish from Lake Tanganyika". Journal of Fish Biology. 91 (3): 789-805. doi:10.1111/jfb.13374.
  65. ↑ Brown; Rüber; Bills; Day (2010). "Mastacembelid eels support Lake Tanganyika as an evolutionary hotspot of diversification". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 10: 188. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-188.
  66. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Lamprichthys". FishBase. March 2017 version.
  67. 1 2 Seddon, M.; Appleton, C.; Van Damme, D.; Graf, D. (2011). "Freshwater molluscs of Africa: diversity, distribution, and conservation". In Darwall et al. (eds.). IUCN. pp. 92-119. ISBN 978-2-8317-1345-8.
  68. 1 2 3 Brown, D. (1994). Freshwater Snails Of Africa And Their Medical Importance. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-7484-0026-5.
  69. ↑ West, K.; Cohen, A. (1996). "Shell microstructure of gastropods from Lake Tanganyika, Africa". Evolution. 50 (2): 672-682. doi:10.2307/2410840.
  70. ↑ Koblmüller; Duftner; Sefc; Aibara; Stipacek; Blanc; Egger; Sturmbauer (2007). "Reticulate phylogeny of gastropod-shell-breeding cichlids from Lake Tanganyika". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7: 7. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-7.
  71. ↑ Marijnissen; Michel; Daniels; Erpenbeck; Menken; Schram (2006). "Molecular evidence for recent divergence of Lake Tanganyika endemic crabs". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 40 (2): 628-634. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.025.
  72. ↑ Fryer, G. (2006). "Evolution in ancient lakes". Hydrobiologia. 568 (1): 131-142. doi:10.1007/s10750-006-0322-x.
  73. ↑ De Grave, S. (2013). "Macrobrachium moorei". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T196882A2477768. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T196882A2477768.en.
  74. ↑ Martens; Schön; Meisch; Horne (2008). "Global diversity of ostracods in freshwater". Hydrobiologia. 595: 185-193. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9245-4.
  75. ↑ Gitter, F.; Gross, M.; Piller, W.E. (2015). "Sub-Decadal Resolution in Sediments of Late Miocene Lake Pannon Reveals Speciation of Cyprideis". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0109360. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109360.
  76. ↑ Schön, I.; Martens, K. (2012). "Molecular analyses of ostracod flocks from Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika". Hydrobiologia. 682 (1): 91-110. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0935-6.
  77. ↑ Cirhuza, D.M.; Plisnier, P.-D. (2016). "Composition and seasonal variations in abundance of Copepod populations from northern Lake Tanganyika". Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management. 19 (4): 401-410. doi:10.1080/14634988.2016.1251277.
  78. ↑ De Grave, S.; Cai, Y.; Amnker, A. (2008). "Global diversity of shrimps in freshwater". Hydrobiologia. 595: 287-293. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9024-2.
  79. ↑ De Grave, S. (2013). "Limnocaridina iridinae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T198058A2510158. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T198058A2510158.en.
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  81. ↑ Cumberlidge, N.; Meyer, K.S. (2011). "A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa". Journal Articles. Paper 30.
  82. ↑ Cumberlidge, N.; Clark, P.F. (2017). "Description of three new species of Potamonautes from the Lake Victoria region". European Journal of Taxonomy. 371: 1-19. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.371.
  83. ↑ Segers, H.; Martens, K., editors (2005). The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems. p. 44. Developments in Hydrobiology. Aquatic Biodiversity. ISBN 1-4020-3745-7.
  84. ↑ Salonen; Högmander; Langenberg; Mölsä; Sarvala; Tarvainen; Tiirola (2012). "Limnocnida tanganyicae medusae: a semiautonomous microcosm in the food web of Lake Tanganyika". Hydrobiologia. 690(1): 97-112.
  85. ↑ "Global warming is killing off tropical lake fish - Study of Lake Tanganyika". Mongabay. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
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  87. ↑ East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation. New York: Oxford University Press.
  88. ↑ Lake Tanganyika and Its Life. Oxford Press. 1991.
  89. ↑ Livingstone, David (2008). The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to His Death. Vol. 1. BiblioBazaar. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-554-26021-1.
  90. ↑ Crowley, Daniel J. (Summer 1966). "An African Aesthetic". The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 24 (4): 519-524. doi:10.2307/428776.
  91. ↑ Foden, Giles (2004). Mimi and Toutou Go Forth - The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika. Penguin.
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