Maroons

maroons

ethnic group, group of humans, dictionary page in Wikipedia

Facet give	Marronnage

Ndyuka man wey dey bring de body of a kiddie before a shaman. Suriname, 1955

Maroons be descendants of Africans insyd de Americas den Islands of de Indian Ocean wey na dem escape from slavery, thru flight anaa manumission, wey na dem form dema own settlements. Na dem often mix plus Indigenous peoples, eventually dem dey evolve into separate creole cultures such as de Garifuna den de Mascogos.

Maroons surprised by dogs (1893) (Brussels) by Louis Samain.

Etymology

Maroon, wich fi get a more general sense of dem abandon widout resources, dem enter English around de 1590s, from de French adjective marron, wey dey mean 'feral' anaa 'fugitive'. Despite de same spelling, na de meaning of 'reddish brown' give maroon no appear til de late 1700s, perhaps dem influence by de idea of Maroon peoples.

Dem often sanso dey give de American Spanish word cimarrón as de source of de English word maroon, dem use to describe de runaway slave communities insyd Florida, insyd de Great Dismal Swamp on de border of Virginia den North Carolina, on colonial islands of de Caribbean, den insyd oda parts of de New World. Linguist Lyle Campbell dey say de Spanish word cimarrón dey mean 'wild, unruly' anaa 'runaway slave'. Insyd de early 1570s, na Sir Francis Drake ein raids for de Spanish top insyd Panama be aided by "Symerons," a likely misspelling of cimarrón. De linguist Leo Spitzer, wey dey wrep insyd de journal Language, dey say, "If der be a connection between Eng. maroon, Fr. marron, den Sp. cimarrón, Spain (anaa Spanish America) dem probably give de word directly to England (anaa English America)."

Alternatively, na de Cuban philologist José Juan Arrom trace de origins of de word maroon further dan de Spanish cimarrón, dem use first insyd Hispaniola make e refer to feral cattle, then to Indian slaves wey escape to de hills, den by de early 1530s to African slaves wey na dem do de same. He dey propose dat de American Spanish word dey derive ultimately from de Arawakan root word simarabo, dem construe as 'fugitive', insyd de Arawakan language wey de Taíno people native to de island dey speak.

History

Colonial era

Insyd de New World, as early as 1512, na African slaves escape from Spanish captors wey dem either join Indigenous peoples anaa dem eke out a living on dema own. Wen na runaway slaves den Amerindians band togeda wey dem subsist independently dem be called "Maroons". For de Caribbean islands, na dem form bands den for sam islands, armed camps.

De earliest Maroon communities of de Americas form insyd wat now be de Dominican Republic, dey follow de first slave rebellion on 26 December 1522, for de sugar plantations top of Admiral Diego Columbus. A typical Maroon community insyd de early stages usually consist of three types of people:

• Na chaw of dem be slaves wey na dem run away directly after dem get off de ships. Na dem refuse make dem surrender dema freedom wey na dem often try make dem find ways to go back to Africa.
• Na de second group be slaves wey na dem dey job for plantations top for a while. Na those slaves usually be sam wat adjusted to de slave system buh na dem be abused by de plantation owners – often plus excessive brutality. Na odas run away wen na dem be sold suddenly to a new owner.
• Na de last group of Maroons usually be skilled slaves plus particularly strong opposition to de slave system.

Maroon pipo dey face plenty wahala to survive di colonists attack, find food wey go fit help dem live, and also dey multiply. As di planters dem dey take over more land for crops, di Maroons dey lose ground for di small islands. Na only for some big islands, di organized Maroon groups fit thrive by planting crops and hunting. As more slaves dey waka comot from di plantations come join dem, dem dey grow in number. Dem dey try make demself separate from di colonisers, so di Maroons dey gather power as di wahala dey increase. Dem dey raid plantations, carry tings wey no be dem own, plus dey disturb di planters till di planters dey fear say big revolt go happen among di black slaves.

By 1700, plenty early Maroon communities don vanish or dem don scatter from di small islands. Survival no be easy at all, as di Maroons dey fight attackers plus dey grow food too.

Relationship to colonial authorities

Marronage (wey be 'run away') na big wahala for New World slave systems. If dem catch Maroons wey don run, dem go punish am well well, like chopping dem leg, removing dem Achilles tendon, castration, and even roasting dem alive. Maroon people fit no make dem community dey accessible; dem need to find places wey hard to enter. E be like say, Maroon communities dey for far swamps for southern USA; inside deep canyons wey get sinkholes but no plenty water or good soil for Jamaica; and for heavy jungles for Guianas. Dem Maroons sabi use di hard environment to dem own advantage to hide and protect demself. Dem get disguised paths, false trails, booby traps, underwater ways, quagmires, and natural things wey help cover dem village.

Maroons in Suriname in the 19th century

Maroons use beta guerrilla warfare skills to face their European enemies. Nanny, di famous Jamaican Maroon, sabi use guerrilla tactics wey plenty military still dey use today. European troops dey follow strict strategies while Maroons dey attack and retreat sharp sharp, dey use ambush styles, fight anytime and anywhere dem like. Even as colonial governments dey always dey fight Maroon communities, some people for colonial system dey trade goods and services with dem. Maroons dey also trade with isolated white settlers and Native American groups. Dem Maroon communities dey play plenty interest groups against one another. At di same time, dem dey use Maroon communities as pawns when colonial powers dey clash. Secrecy and loyalty for members dey very important for their survival. To make sure say loyalty dey, dem dey use serious methods to protect against desertion and spies. New members go come through detours so dem no fit find their way back, dem go serve probation as slaves. Crimes like desertion and adultery fit end for death.

The Maroon Wars

1801 aquatint of a Maroon raid on the Dromilly estate, Jamaica, during the Second Maroon War of 1795–1796.

Maroon people start to show for plenty places for Caribbean, like St Vincent and Dominica, but no one dey threaten UK like Jamaican Maroons. From late 17th century, Jamaican Maroons dey fight British colonizers, which lead to First Maroon War (1728–1740). For 1739 and 1740, British governor for Jamaica, Edward Trelawny, sign treaties wey go give Jamaican Maroons 2,500 acres for two places, Cudjoe’s Town for west Jamaica and Crawford’s Town for east Jamaica, to stop the wahala between dem. Dem go still agree to catch other slaves wey don run. Dem dey pay dem small cash of two dollars for each African wey dem bring back. This treaties free the Maroons even before Slavery Abolition Act wey come for 1833 and start for 1838.

Di Second Maroon War wey happen from 1795–1796 na how many months? Eight months o! E be fight wey happen between di Maroons for Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town), wey dem later rename after Governor Edward Trelawny after di First Maroon War. E dey for near Trelawny Parish for Jamaica inside St James Parish, and di British wey dey control di island. Di Windward Maroon communities wey dey Jamaica no pick side during dis wahala, and di treaty wey dem get with di British still dey valid. But Accompong Town, e decide to follow di colonial militias, and dem fight against Trelawny Town.

Modern era

Ndyuka man bringing the body of a child before a shaman. Suriname, 1955

Some Maroon people dey still exist for di old Spanish Caribbean as of 2006, for places like Viñales, Cuba. Right now, di Jamaican Maroons dey live dem own life separate from di rest of Jamaica. Di way dem ancestors go hide from dem enemies don help dem, as dem still dey among di hardest places to reach for di island. For dem biggest town, Accompong, in St Elizabeth, di Leeward Maroons get around 600 people wey still dey live strong together. Dem dey carry tourists go di village, and every 6 January dem dey throw big festival to remember when dem sign di peace treaty with di British after di First Maroon War.

Ndyuka treaty dey very important for Ndyuka people and di modern Surinamese government, e show wetin be di land rights of di Maroons for di gold plenty areas of Suriname.

Culture

See also: Afro-American religion

Maroon flag in Freetown, Sierra Leone

Di Maroon cultural groups dey very different because of wetin don happen for dia history, di land wey dem dey, di African nationality, and di culture of di Indigenous people all over di Western Hemisphere. Outside di plantation wahala, Maroons fit share, keep and adapt different African, European and Indigenous traditions and cultures, so dem get plenty different Maroon identities. For example, di Jamaican Maroons sabi use di Coromantee language for ceremonies, and dem still dey practice some herbal medicine wey dey like West African traditions.

Maroon village, Suriname River, 1955

Di jungles wey dey around Caribbean Sea provide food, place to rest, and make dem no go dey disturbed for di escaped slaves. Di Maroons dey manage demself by growing vegetables and hunting. Dem survival depend on dem culture and wetin dem sabi for military, using guerrilla tactics and strong houses wey get traps and distractions. Some pipo see to waka comot from di community as betrayal and dem fit punish you with death. Dem also dey raid plantations from di beginning. When dem attack, di Maroons go burn crops, carry livestock and tools run, kill slavemasters, and invite other slaves make dem join dem community. Different groups of Maroons dey often join local Indigenous tribes and sometimes fit blend in with dem. Di Maroons play serious role for di stories of Brazil, Suriname, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Jamaica.

Maroons dey form dem own tight-knit community wey no dey blend easy with outsiders. Sometimes, dem go mix European languages with dem original African languages come create Creole languages. For Suriname, Saramaccan be one of dem Maroon Creole. Other times, dem go fit take local European language change am small as dem common language, 'cause plenty people for the community dey speak different mother tongues.

Maroons build their own independent societies wey some don survive for years, and till recently, dem dey separate from the main society. For 19th and 20th century, plenty Maroon communities begin vanish as dem dey chop down forest, but some places like Guyana and Suriname still get large Maroon people wey dey live inside the bush. E be like say recently, many of dem don waka go towns and cities as urbanization dey quicken.

Geographical distribution

Africa

Mauritius

Main article: Mauritian Maroons

Under governor Adriaan van der Stel for 1642, early Dutch settlers from Dutch East India Company bring 105 slaves from Madagascar and some Asia come work for dem for Dutch Mauritius. But 50 of these first slaves, wey include women, escape go bush for Dutch Mauritius. Only 18 of dem wey escape catch. On 18 June 1695, one gang of Maroons wey be Indonesian and Chinese origin, like Aaron d'Amboine, Antoni (Bamboes), and Paul de Batavia, plus female escapees Anna du Bengale and Espérance, burn the Dutch settlers' Fort Frederick Hendryk (Vieux Grand Port) as dem try take over the island. Dem all catch and dem cut dem head off. For February 1706, another revolt happen from the remaining Maroons plus some slaves wey dey vex. When Dutch comot for Dutch Mauritius for 1710, the Maroons still dey there.

When dem people wey represent French East India Company land for di island for 1715, dem face wahala from di Mauritian Maroons. Big tins wey happen na di 1724 attack for military post for Savannah area, plus di wahala wey dem bring for military barrack for 1732 for Poste de Flacq. Plenty people die from di attacks. Shortly after Mahé de La Bourdonnais land for 1735, e gather French militia wey get civilians and soldiers to fight di Maroons. For 1739, dem catch Maroon leader Sans Souci near Flacq and dem burn am alive. Some years later, one group of French settlers chase Barbe Blanche, another Maroon leader, but dem misplace am for Le Morne. Other Maroons wey dey de include Diamamouve and Madame Françoise.

Réunion

Na de most important Maroons for Réunion be Cimendef, Cotte, Dimitile den Maffate. For 18th century, Dimitile do small rebellion and run go hide for di island wey he name after. For 1743, dem talk say Dimitile and him guys free one slave, Jeanneton, wey come from Mozambique, from her master Pierre Hibon hand.

Sierra Leone

Main article: Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone

A group of just under 600 Jamaican Maroons wey komot Cudjoe's Town, de largest of de five Jamaican maroon towns, na dem deport dem by de British authorities insyd Jamaica dey follow de Second Maroon War insyd 1796, first to Nova Scotia. Four years later insyd 1800, na dem be transported to Sierra Leone.

Sierra Leone Company don set Freetown and Sierra Leone Colony for 1792 make dem fit resettle African Americans wey land for Nova Scotia after dem don free dem for United States post American War. Some Jamaican Maroons sabi go back to Jamaica small, but plenty of dem join Sierra Leone Creole people and culture wey get free pipo and slaves wey sabi follow dem when colony just start.

North America

Canada

Nova Scotia

Insyd de 1790s, na dem deport about 600 Jamaican Maroons to British settlements insyd Nova Scotia, wer na American slaves wey escape from de United States sanso go resettle. Na dem be unhappy plus conditions, insyd 1800, na a majority emigrate to Freetown, West Africa wer na dem be identified as de Sierra Leone Creoles.

Caribbean

Cuba

Insyd Cuba, na der be Maroon communities insyd de mountains, wer na African refugees escape de brutality of slavery wey dem join Taínos. Insyd 1538, na runaways help de French make dem sack de city of Havana.

For 1731, slaves wey don rise up for Cobre mines, dem set up their own community for Sierra del Cobre, and dem dey enjoy life till 1781, when population don increase pass 1,000. For 1781, Spanish colonial people agree say dem go recognize the freedom of dis community own people. For 1797, one leader wey dem catch from palenque near Jaruco na Indian wey from Yucatán.

For 1810s, Ventura Sanchez wey dem dey call Coba, dey in charge of one palenque wey get plenti Maroons for di mountain wey no too far from Santiago de Cuba. Dem trick am make e go Santiago de Cuba, where e decide say make e take im own life than make dem catch am give back to slavery. After dat, dem give di leadership of di palenque to Manuel Grinan, wey dem dey call Gallo.

Bumba palenque dey organised well well, dem even send Maroons for small boats go Jamaica and Santo Domingo to trade. For 1830, Spanish colonial people carry out military waka against Bumba and Maluala palenques. Antonio de Leon finally knack down Bumba palenque finish.

For 1830s, Maroon towns dey burst for western Cuba, especially around San Diego de Nunez. Di Maroon Capture Office talk say from 1797 go 1846, plenty runaways dey live for dem palenques. But di eastern mountains get di oldest palenques like Moa and Maluala, wey Maroons dey flourish until di First War of Independence for 1868, when many Maroons join di Cuban Liberation Army.

Dem get 28 archaeological sites for Viñales Valley wey relate to runaway African slaves or Maroons wey dey live for early 19th century; dem find evidence of their presence for caves wey groups stay small-small. People talk say Maroons dey hide for mogotes slope and for the caves; Viñales Municipal Museum dey show archaeological things wey fit talk about life of the runaway slaves, as dem see am through research. Cultural traditions wey dem dey act during Semana de la Cultura (Week of Culture) dey celebrate di town wey start for 1607.

Dominica, Saint Lucia, den Saint Vincent

Similar Maroon communities dey pop up for islands across Caribbean, like where de Garifuna people dey for Saint Vincent. Plenty of de Garifuna people wey dem carry go America, some land for Mosquito Coast or even Belize. From dem original landing for Roatan Island wey dey off Honduras coast, de Maroons carry waka go Trujillo. Small-small, dem groups waka go south enter Miskito Kingdom and north enter Belize. For Dominica, escaped slaves join Indigenous Kalinago for di dense forest inside di island make Maroon communities, wey always dey jom with British colonial people during dat chattel slavery time.

For Saint Lucia wey be French colony, Maroons and some French soldiers wey run from di Revolution form wetin dem call: Armée Française dans les bois, wey mean 'French army for di bush', wey get like 6,000 men wey dey fight di First Brigand War against di British wey don take ova di island. Dem dey led by di French Commissioner, Gaspard Goyrand. Dem fit take back plenty part of di island from di British, but for 26 May 1796, about 2,000 men wey dey defend di fort for Morne Fortune surrender to British troops wey dey under General John Moore. After dem capitulate, over 2,500 French and Afro-Caribbean prisoners plus ninety-nine women and pikin dem carry go Portchester Castle. Eventually, dem send dem go France for prisoner exchange; some stay for Europe while some go back to France.

Dominican Republic

Further information: History of the Dominican Republic

American marronage start for Spain colony wey dey for Hispaniola. Governor Nicolás de Ovando don dey complain say slaves don run away and dey mix with Taíno Indians since 1503. The first slave revolt happen for Hispaniola for sugar plantations wey Admiral Diego Columbus own, on 26 December 1522, and e beat dem well well. Even though di Admiral crush di revolt, plenty of di slaves still find way escape. Di Dominican Maroons go lead di first Maroon activities for di Americas. Sebastián Lemba, wey born for Africa, successfully rebel against di Spaniards for 1532, come gather with other Africans for im 15-year fight against di Spanish colonizers. Lemba later join with other Maroons like Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo and Diego del Ocampo for di fight against slavery. As di Maroons dey disturb Spanish trade, di Spanish officials begin dey fear say Maroons fit take over di island.

Maroons join di locals for dem war against di Spanish people and hide with di rebel leader Enriquillo for Bahoruco Mountains. By di 1540s, Maroons don already take over di inside parts of di island, but di east, north, and west areas still dey fall under dem control. Di Maroon gangs dey waka around di island in big groups, dey attack villages wey dem find, dey burn plantations, kill and loot di Spaniards, and free di slaves. Di roads don open so much for attack, di Spaniards sabi say e better make dem move in groups. When Archdeacon Alonso de Castro waka tour Hispaniola for 1542, e estimate di Maroon population to be about 2,000–3,000 people.

Insyd de 1570s, na Sir Francis Drake enlist chaw cimarrones during ein raids for de Spanish dema top. Dominican Maroons go be present thru out de island til de mid 17th century.

Haiti

Di French wey dey face plenty kind slave wahala for 17th and 18th century for Saint Domingue, wey dem later go call Haiti. Dem African wey don suffer and run go far away mountain area dem dey call dem marron (for French) or mawon (for Haitian Creole), meaning 'people wey don escape from slave life'. Di Maroons gather like family wey dey do small-small farming and hunting. Dem sabi go back to plantation come free dem family and friends. Small small times, dem even join di Taíno people wey don run away from Spanish for di 17th century.

For late 17th and early 18th centuries, plenty Maroons dey live for Bahoruco mountains. In 1702, French people come do expedition, dem kill three Maroons and carry 11 go, but over 30 run go hide for di mountains. Dem try do more expeditions, but e no scatter well, sha. Dem catch one of dem leaders, Michel, in 1719. For 1728 and 1733, French forces catch 46 and 32 Maroons. No matter how many soldiers dem send, Maroons still dey attract more runaways. Expeditions for 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 get small success, but dem no fit find dem hideout.

For late 17th and early 18th century, plenty Maroons dey for Bahoruco mountains. For 1702, French dem send squad go fight dem, kill three Maroons and catch 11, but over 30 scatter, run deep inside mountain bush. Dem dey try go after dem small, but no plenty success, as dem capture one leader, Michel, for 1719. After dat, for 1728 and 1733, French catch 46 and 32 Maroons respectively. No matter how many teams wey dem send go after these Maroons, dem still dey gather runaways. Expeditions for 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 get small success against dem, but no fit destroy dem hiding places.

For 1782, de Saint-Larry come decide sey e go offer peace terms to one Maroon leader wey be Santiago. Dem go fit get their freedom if dem go make sure sey all runaways go come back to their owners. Before dem know, by end of 1785, dem don agree terms, and over 100 Maroons under Santiago stop dey disturb French territory.

Other slaves wey dey fight French plantation dem dey do am more directly. One of de big Maroons wey sabi be François Mackandal, e be houngan or voodoo priest, wey lead one serious rebellion against white plantation owners for Haiti before Haitian Revolution. Mackandal dey plan to poison de water wey plantation owners dey drink for de 1750s. Then for 1791, Boukman declare war on de French plantation owners, and dat one start de Haitian Revolution. Dem build statue wey dem dey call Le Nègre Marron or Nèg Mawon for de center of Port-au-Prince to sabi how Maroons contribute for Haitian independence.

Jamaica

Main article: Jamaican Maroons

People wey run away from slavery when Spanish dey occupy Jamaica go deep for the land go join the Taíno wey dey there, create refugee community. Later, plenty of dem gain freedom during the wahala wey follow the 1655 English Invasion of Jamaica. Some refugee slaves still dey join dem for years till slavery chop finish for 1838, but generally, after dem sign the treaties for 1739 and 1740, the Maroons dey chase runaway slaves for money from British government.

For late 17th and 18th century, British dey try grab Maroons because dem dey waka go spoil plantations small small, e make am hard for dem to expand inside. By 18th century, Nanny Town and other Maroon villages for Jamaica begin dey fight make dem recognize dem as independent. Dem wahala increase plenty over years, wey lead to the first Maroon War for 1730s, but British no fit beat dem. Finally, dem settle matter with dem for treaty in 1739 and 1740, wey gree dem make dem get freedom for their obodo, but if dem call dem for military service, dem go come. Some Maroon groups get power well well, wey even fit make treaty with local colonizers, sometimes dey dey negotiate their independence just to help catch other slaves wey don run.

As wahala dey happen with Maroons wey dey Trelawny Town, Second Maroon War start for 1795. Governor trick Trelawny Maroons make dem surrender, then colonial government carry about 600 Maroons go Nova Scotia. Dem face plenty wahala for Nova Scotia and England after American Revolution. Britain come create colony for West Africa, Sierra Leone. E be chance for ethnic Africans to build their community, wey start for 1792. Around 1800, plenty Jamaican Maroons waka go Freetown, di first settlement for Sierra Leone. Later, for 1840s, about 200 Trelawny Maroons come back Jamaica, settle for Flagstaff village for St James parish, no far from Trelawny Town wey dem now dey call Maroon Town, Jamaica.

Di only Leeward Maroon place wey still dey free for Jamaica after di Second Maroon War na Accompong for Saint Elizabeth Parish. Di people there follow dem 1739 agreement wey dem make with di British. Di Windward Maroon community dey for Charles Town, Jamaica, for Buff Bay River inside Portland Parish. Anoda one dey for Moore Town (formerly Nanny Town) too for Portland Parish. For 2005, di music of di Moore Town Maroons get recognition from UNESCO as 'Masterpiece of di Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.' Anoda community dey for Scott's Hall, Jamaica, for St Mary Parish. Di autonomy of Accompong confirm when di Jamaica government ratify am after di island gain independence for 1962.

The government has tried to encourage the survival of the other Maroon settlements. The Jamaican government and the Maroon communities organised the Annual International Maroon Conference, initially to be held at rotating communities around the island, but the conference has been held at Charles Town since 2009. Maroons from other Caribbean, Central, and South America nations are invited. In 2016, Accompong's colonel and a delegation traveled to the Kingdom of Ashanti in Ghana to renew ties with the Akan and Asante people of their ancestors.

Puerto Rico

For Puerto Rico, Taíno families wey dey Utuado move enter the southwestern mountain ranges, plus escaped African slaves wey marry dem. Before dem build road go the mountains, heavy bush hide plenty escaped Maroons for the southwestern hills. Escaped slaves dey find shelter far from the coastal plantations of Ponce.

Martinique

For Martinique, di African slaves wey run come hide for Maroon settlement for di northern bush to jom from di French plantation wahala and di overseers plus white settlers. During di French Revolution, di Igbo slaves dey fight for freedom, and di French National Convention come end slavery for 1794. But e no be until 1848, wey di last slave uprising show face, wey make dem be di first French overseas territory wey abolish slavery, alongside plenty other French colonies.

Central America

Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, den Nicaragua

Plenty different Maroon groups dey around Gulf of Honduras. Some dey inside modern-day Honduras, along di trade routes wey dem dey carry silver wey dem mine from di Pacific side come give coastal towns like Trujillo or Puerto Caballos to ship go Europe. When slaves run, dem dey carry go di mountains for safety. For 1548, for wetin we sabi as Honduras, slaves for San Pedro rebel, led by one self-freed slave wey dem call Miguel, wey come create hin own capital. Di Spaniards gatz send soldiers to quench di wahala.

For 1648, English bishop wey dey Guatemala, Thomas Gage, talk say plenty Maroons dey waka for dis routes, e be hundreds. The Miskito Sambu be one Maroon group wey comot from slaves wey rebel on top Portuguese ship for around 1640, dem come wreck di ship for Honduras-Nicaragua side and run go hide inside bush. Dem marry plenty of di Indigenous people for di next 50 years. Eventually, dem come take charge for Mosquito Coast and dey lead plenty slave raids against di Spanish people for di first half of 18th century.

Garifuna be pikin dem wey come from Maroon communities wey don grow for Saint Vincent island. Dem carry dem go Honduras coast for 1797.

Panama

Main article: Cimarron people (Panama)

Bayano, one Mandinka guy wey dem don slave and carry go Panama for 1552, lead one rebellion that year against Spaniard for Panama. E and him crew run come create village for lowland. Viceroy Canete no fit scatter dem Maroons, so e tell dem say if dem go accept freedom, make dem no carry new people join and make dem return any runaway to him owner.

Na dese people, dem know as de Cimarrón, assist Sir Francis Drake make dem fight against de Spanish.

Mexico

Na Gaspar Yanga be an African leader of a Maroon colony insyd de Veracruz highlands insyd wat now be Mexico. Dem dey believe Yanga be a fugitive since de early 1570s, wey na he be de leader of a formidable group of Maroons.

For 1609, Captain Pedro Gonzalo de Herrera run expedition go confront Yanga and him Maroons, but e be serious wahala for both sides, no body fit win. Instead, Yanga troway negotiation with di Spanish people make dem agree for him Maroon settlement wey dem go call San Lorenzo de los Negros (we later know am as Yanga). Yanga make dem recognize say him Maroons dey free, and dem give him palenque di status of free town. For return, dem tell Yanga say him go bring back any fresh runaway wey go run come meet dem.

Di Costa Chica for Guerrero an Oaxaca get plenty areas wey no easy to reach, but dem be safe place for slaves wey dey run away from Spanish ranches an estates for di Pacific coast. You fit see evidence of dis pipo for di Afro-Mexican population of di area. Other Afro-Mexican communities wey come from people wey escape slavery dey for Veracruz an Northern Mexico; some of dis later communities come from people wey run from slavery for di United States through di Southern Underground Railroad.

United States

Florida

Main article: Black Seminoles

Maroons wey escape from Thirteen Colonies come join Seminole Indians be one of di largest and successful Maroon communities for na Florida because dem get better rights and freedom from Spanish Empire. Some of dem marry and chop Seminole culture; some dey hold on to their African culture. Di pikin wey show say dem dey related to dem wey move with Seminole go Indian Territory for 1830s dem sabi as Black Seminoles. Plenty of dem dey part of Seminole Nation for Oklahoma before, but since late 20th century, dem don dey exclude dem with new rules wey require make you show say you get Native American blood from old documents.

Georgia

Insyd de late 18th century, na dem establish two Maroon settlements for Abercorn Island (then dem call Belleisle), wey dey situate upriver from Savannah along de Savannah River, insyd modern-day Effingham County. Insyd 1787, na dese settlements be destroyed by a local militia. Afterwards, na de Maroons establish anoda settlement for Bear Creek, though na dem san raid dis settlement wey na dem kill ein leader.

Illinois

Na dem establish Lakeview as a Freedmen's town by a group of African-American runaway slaves den freedmen wey dem immigrate from North Carolina shortly after de War of 1812. Na dem arrive between 1818 den 1820. Na dis area be ideal for de remaining Native Americans wey na dem live, hunt, fish, den farm dis region wey na de black community integrate plus de Amerindians.

Louisiana

Until around 1760s, Maroon colonies dey line Lake Borgne shore, just downriver New Orleans, Louisiana. Dis escaped enslaved people control plenty canals and back-country routes from Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf, plus the Rigolets. Di San Malo community dey chop life well-well as independent community. But later, militia from Spanish-controlled New Orleans wey Francisco Bouligny dey lead come wipe dem out. Free people wey get color also help catch dem.

People wey na dem escape enslavement insyd ante-bellum America continue make dem find refuge den freedom insyd rural Louisiana, wey dey include insyd areas around New Orleans.

North Carolina den Virginia

Na de Great Dismal Swamp maroons inhabit de marshlands of de Great Dismal Swamp insyd Virginia den North Carolina. Although na conditions be harsh, research dey suggest say na thousands live der between about 1700 den de 1860s.

South America

Brazil

One of di popular quilombos (Maroon settlements) for Brazil na Palmares (di Palm Nation) wey dey near Recife, wey dem start around 1600. Quilombo dos Palmares be community wey get escaped slaves from di Portuguese settlements for Brazil, "na area wey fit be di size of Portugal inside di hinterland of Bahia". Di massive size of Palmares dey because e dey sit for di middle point between di Atlantic Ocean and Guinea, wey be important place for di African slave trade. For di peak, e get over 30,000 free people and dem dey ruled by King Zumbi. Zumbi and Ganga Zumba na di two popular warrior-leaders of Palmares wey dey fight off Dutch and later Portuguese colonial authorities.

For 1612, the Portuguese try give am but no fit take Palmares, e cost dem plenty money. For 1640, Dutch wey come check see say the self-freed people dey spread across two towns, with about 6,000 dey one side and another 5,000 dey another side. Dutch wey try fight Palmares for 1640s too no sabi find am. Between 1672 and 1694, Palmares dey face one Portuguese attack almost every year. After dey dey live independent for near one hundred years, dem finally conquer am for 1694.

From di 10 big quilombos wey dey colonial Brazil, seven of dem destroy within two years wey dem form. Four fall for Bahia for 1632, 1636, 1646 and 1796. Di odas three meet di same wahala for Rio in 1650, Parahyba in 1731, and Piumhy in 1758. One quilombo for Minas Gerais last from 1712 to 1719. Anoda one, di 'Carlota' from Mato Grosso, wipe out after 25 years, from 1770 to 1795. Many small quilombos dey too. Di first one wey dem report na 1575 for Bahia. Anoda one for Bahia show up for di start of 17th century. From 1737 to 1787, small quilombo dey enjoy for area of São Paulo. Campo Grande and São Francisco dey full with quilombos. For 1741, Jean Ferreira organize small team go fight quilombo, but plenty runaways escape. For 1746, dem catch 120 members of di quilombo after anoda attack. In 1752, Pere Marcos lead an expedition but quilombo fighters attack dem, make plenty people lose dem life.

Quilombos dey form well well for 19th century. For 1810, dem discover one quilombo for Linhares inside São Paulo state. Ten years later, dem find another one for Minas. For 1828, dem discover another quilombo for Cahuca, near Recife, and one year later, dem send expedition go fight another one for Corcovado, near Rio. By 1855, dem scatter Maravilha quilombo for Amazonas. Plenty descendants of Quilombo residents, wey dem dey call Quilombolas, still dey live for dem historic quilombo place after emancipation. Dem status as 'traditional people' recognized for 1988 Constitution of Brazil, but dem still dey fight for land rights and protection from violence.

Colombia

For 1529, for where dem dey call Colombia now, rebel slaves scatter Santa Marta. Dem wey waka come out don build their own place along the far Pacific coast, no be where colonial people fit catch dem. At the begin of 17th century, some runaways don set palenque for the edge of Magdalena River. E go reach 1654, governor of Cartegena de Indias, Don Pedro Zapata, come deal with this community of runaway Maroons.

For where dem dey call Popayán district, the palenque wey dem run-away slaves build come gree well well. For 1732, Spanish people try make peace with the Maroons of Castillo wey dem talk say make dem bring back any run-away, but di leaders of Castillo no gree accept. Then for 1745, di colonial people come wahala dem, and over 200 African and Indian run-aways come surrender.

For de beginning of 17th century, dem form San Basilio de Palenque wey Benkos Biohó lead about 30 people wey run away go into di forest, and dem win all di wahala wey dem try put for dem. Biohó call himself King Benkos, and him palenque for San Basilio dey attract plenty runaways wey wan join him community. Him Maroons beat di first people wey dem send come fight dem, kill dia leader Juan Gomez. Di Spanish people come reach agreement with Biohó, but later dem catch am for 1619, accuse am say e dey plan against dem, and dem hang am. But runaways still dey find way escape to freedom for San Basilio.

For 1696, di colonial oga dem fit scatter anoda wahala for San Basilio de Palenque, an e happen again between 1713 and 1717. Eventually, di Spanish people agree to some peace talk with di San Basilio palenque, an for 1772, dis Maroons community join Mahates area, as long as dem no go accept any more runaways. Di San Basilio community, wey dem dey speak di creole Palenquero language, na one of di many wey still dey for di Caribbean coast.

Ecuador

On top all di escaped slaves, people wey survive from ship crash come join body form separate communities for di rivers wey dey for northern coast, and dem dey mix with di Indigenous people for areas wey colonial wahala no fit reach. You fit sabi different communities for di cantones Cojimies and Tababuela, Esmeraldas, Limones.

The Guianas

Main article: History of Suriname § Slavery and emancipation

Saramaka man, photo c. 1910

Maroon men in Suriname, picture taken between 1910 and 1935

Marronage dey happen for British, Dutch, and French Guiana, and today, di pipo wey be Maroons make up around 15% of Suriname population and 22% for French Guiana. For di Guianas, di slaves wey run away, dem dey call dem 'Bushinengues', hide for di interior, join Indigenous pipo and form plenty independent tribes like Saramaka, Paramaka, Ndyuka (Aukan), Kwinti, Aluku (Boni), and Matawai.

For di plantation colony wey dem dey call Suriname, wey England hand am over to Netherlands for di Treaty of Breda (1667), escaped slaves don chop knuckle and start to build dem own village from di end of di 17th century. Most of di plantations dey for eastern side of di country, near di Commewijne River and Marowijne River, so di marronage dey happen for di river sides and sometimes cross go French Guiana. By 1740, di Maroons don form clans and dem don strong well-well to challenge di Dutch colonists, make dem gree sign peace treaties. On 10 October 1760, di Ndyuka be di first wey sign peace treaty, wey jamaican slave Adyáko Benti Basiton of Boston draft am, wey gree dem get some land freedom for 1760. For di 1770s, di Aluku too wan peace treaty, but Society of Suriname come start war against dem, cause dem to run go French Guiana. Di other tribes come sign peace treaties with Surinamese government, di Kwinti na di last wey sign for 1887. On 25 May 1891, di Aluku finally become French citizens officially.

After Suriname collect dem independence from Netherlands, dem waka cancel di old treaties wey dem get with di Bushinengues. By di 1980s, di Bushinengues for Suriname don start dey fight for dem land rights. Between 1986 and 1992, di Surinamese Interior War begin wey di Jungle Commando, wey be guerrilla group dey fight for di Maroon minority rights, dey tussle with di military rule of Dési Bouterse. For 2005, after dem saga from Inter-American Court of Human Rights, di Suriname government agree to pay better compensation to di survivors of di 1986 Moiwana village massacre, wey soldiers don kill 39 unarmed Ndyuka people, mostly women and pikin. On 13 June 2020, Ronnie Brunswijk collect di Vice President position for Suriname by crowd ooo, no be contested election. Dem swear am in on 16 July as di first Maroon for Suriname wey go serve as vice president.

For today Guyana, Dutch people wey dem dey run things for 1744 go do waka against plenty Maroons wey don settle for Northwest Essequibo. Dem Dutch nail di hand wey dem cut from Maroons wey dem kill for di waka to post for di colony to warn other slaves. For 1782, one French guy wey dey for di area gree say more than 2,000 Maroons dey around Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo.

Venezuela

For history, slaves wey dey rebel no be small for wetin we know as Venezuela now. Many free and escape slaves come gather for Barlovento area, dem form wetin dem dey call cumbes. One popular settlement be Curiepe, wey dem dey throw big party for Fiesta de San Juan every year. Another one na Ocoyta cumbe, wey runaway guy Guillermo Ribas dey lead, and dem sabi for wahala wey dem dey cause for Chuspa and Panaquire towns. Dis Venezuelan Maroons dey also dey trade cocoa. Guillermo take off for 1768, come form cumbe wey get both African and Indian escapees inside.

The cumbe of Ocoyta come destroy for 1771. One military team wey German de Aguilera lead scatter the place, kill Guillermo, but dem only fit catch eight adults and two pikin. The rest wey run come hide for surrounding bush, dem still dey free. One of Guillermo's right-hand man, Ubaldo wey be Englishman, wey dem call am Jose Eduardo de la Luz Perera, born as slave for London, sell am to ship captain, and he waka many times before dem finally give am freedom. He be one of the free black people wey join Ocoyta community. For 1772, Spanish people catch am.

Plenty cumbes dey inside di colony. For 1810, when di War of Independence start, plenty pipo from dem cumbes join di rebels, and waka comot from dia village.

See also

• Slave catcher
• Slave rebellion
• Afro-Latin American: Latin Americans of significant or mainly African ancestry.
• Black Seminoles: Indians associated with the Seminole people in Florida and Oklahoma.
• Bushinengues: in French Guiana, meaning people of the forest, descendants of slaves who escaped enslavement and established independent communities in the forest.
• Gaspar Yanga: an African known for being the leader of a Maroon colony of slaves in New Spain.
• Saramaka: one of six Maroon peoples in the Republic of Suriname and one of the Maroon peoples in French Guiana.
• Jamaican Maroons: one of the few countries where Maroon communities still exist.
• Quilombo a 1985 film about Quilombo dos Palmares, a fugitive community of escaped slaves and others, in colonial Brazil.
• Jean Dugain

Sources

Literature

• History of the Maroons
• Russell Banks (1980), The Book of Jamaica.
• Campbell, Mavis Christine (1988), The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: a history of resistance, collaboration & betrayal, Granby, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 0-89789-148-1
• Corzo, Gabino La Rosa (2003), Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression (translated by Mary Todd), Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2803-3
• Robert Charles Dallas The History of the Maroons, from Their Origin to the Establishment of Their Chief Tribe at Sierra Leone. 2 vols. London: Longman. 1803.
• De Granada, Germán (1970), Cimarronismo, palenques y Hablas "Criollas" en Hispanoamérica Instituto Caro y Cuero, Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia, OCLC 37821053 (in Spanish)
• Diouf, Sylviane A. (2014), Slavery's Exiles: The Story of the American Maroons, New York: NYU Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-2437-8
• Honychurch, Lennox (1995), The Dominica Story, London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-62776-8 (Includes extensive chapters on the Maroons of Dominica)

• Hoogbergen, Wim S. M. Brill (1997), The Boni Maroon Wars in Suriname, Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09303-6
• Learning, Hugo Prosper (1995), Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas Garland Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8153-1543-0

• Price, Richard (ed.) (1973), Maroon Societies: rebel slave communities in the Americas, Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-06508-6
• Schwaller, Robert, ed. African Maroons in Sixteenth-Century Panama: A History in Documents. University of Oklahoma Press, 2021.
• Thompson, Alvin O. (2006), Flight to Freedom: African runaways and maroons in the Americas University of West Indies Press, Kingston, Jamaica, ISBN 976-640-180-2
• Thompson, Alvin O. (1976). Some Problems of Slave Desertion in Guyana, C. 1750-1814. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Indies. p. 16.
• van Velzen, H.U.E. Thoden and van Wetering, Wilhelmina (2004), In the Shadow of the Oracle: Religion as Politics in a Suriname Maroon Society, Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press. ISBN 1-57766-323-3

External links

• Chaglar, Alkan. "The World of Surinam". toplumpostasi.net. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. (The Maroons, Hindustanis and others of Surinam.)
• Lagace, Robert O. "Society-BUSH-NEGROES: Culture summary". Archived from the original on 12 March 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) A good short history of the "Bush Negroes" of Suriname.
• Mosis, André. "Articles on Suriname Maroons and their culture in Dutch and English". Kingbotho. Archived from the original on 21 April 2004.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
• Reidell, Helen Reidell (January–February 1990). "The Maroon Culture of Endurance". Américas. Vol. 42. pp. 46–49. (A history of Jamaican Maroons.)

• Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service (SITES) in collaboration with the Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage, with the support of the Special Exhibition Fund of the Smithsonian Institution (March 1999). "Creativity and Resistance: Maroon Cultures in the Americas". Smithsonian.
• Various artists. "Music from Aluku: Maroon Sounds of Struggle, Solace, and Survival". Smithsonian Folkways.
• Black Prisoners of War at Porchester Castle
• Lands of Freedom: the oral histories and cultural heritage of the Matawai Maroons in Suriname