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Mecca
tourist attraction, holy city of Islam, holy city
Official nameمكة المكرمة Edit
Native labelمكة المكرمة Edit
Nicknameأم القرى Edit
CountrySaudi Arabia Edit
Capital ofKingdom of Hejaz, Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz, Mecca Province, The Holy Capital Governorate Edit
Edey de administrative territorial entity insydMecca Province Edit
Located in time zoneUTC+03:00 Edit
Coordinate location21°25′21″N 39°49′34″E Edit
Government ein headKhalid bin Faisal Edit
Twinned administrative bodyMedina Edit
Significant eventSiege of Mecca Edit
Dema official websitehttps://hmm.gov.sa/ Edit
Local dialing code1 Edit
Stack Exchange taghttps://islam.stackexchange.com/tags/mecca Edit
Category for the view of the itemCategory:Views of Mecca Edit
Category for maps or plansCategory:Maps of Mecca Edit
Map

Mecca (officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, dem commonly shorten to Makkah) be de capital of Mecca Province insyd de Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; ebe de holiest city according to Islam.[1] E be 70 km (43 mi) inland from Jeddah for de Red Sea, insyd a narrow valley 277 m (909 ft) above sea level. Na ein metropolitan population insyd 2022 be 2.4 million, wey dey make am de third-most populated city insyd Saudi Arabia after Riyadh den Jeddah. Around 44.5% of de population be Saudi citizens den around 55.5% be Muslim foreigners from oda countries.[2] Pilgrims more dan triple de population number every year during de Hajj pilgrimage, dem observe insyd de twelfth Hijri month of Dhūl-Ḥijjah.[3] Plus over 10.8 million international visitors insyd 2023, na Mecca be one of de ten most visited cities insyd de world.[4]

Mecca be generally considered "de fountainhead den cradle of Islam".[5][6] Dem dey rever Mecca insyd Islam as de birthplace of de Islamic prophet Muhammad. De Hira cave atop de Jabal al-Nur ("Mountain of Light"), just outsyd de city, be wer Muslims dey believe na dem first reveal de Quran to Muhammad.[7] Visiting Mecca for de Hajj be an obligation upon all able Muslims. De Great Mosque of Mecca, dem know as de Masjid al-Haram, be home to de Ka'bah, wey Muslims dey believe e be built by Abraham den Ishmael. Ebe Islam ein holiest site den de direction of prayer (qibla) give all Muslims worldwide.[8]

Etymology

Na dem dey refer to Mecca by chaw names. As plus chaw Arabic words, ein etymology be obscure.[9] Dem widely believe e be a synonym give Makkah, na dem say e be more specifically de early name give de valley wey locate therein, while Muslim scholars generally use am make dem refer to de sacred area of de city wey dey immediately surround den dey include de Ka'bah.[10][11]

Bakkah

De Quran dey refer to de city as Bakkah insyd Surah Al Imran (3), verse 96: "Indeed de first House [of worship], dem establish give mankind na ebe dat for Bakkah". Na dis be said e be de name of de city for de time of Ibrahim wey e sanso be transliterated as Baca, Baka, Bakah, Bakka, Becca den Bekka, among odas.[12][13][14] Na ebe a name give de city insyd de ancient world.[15]

Makkah, Makkah al-Mukarramah den Mecca

Makkah be de official transliteration wey de Saudi government dey use wey ebe closer to de Arabic pronunciation.[16][17] Na de government adopt Makkah as de official spelling insyd de 1980s, buh e no be universally known anaa used worldwide.[16] De full official name be Makkah al-Mukarramah (Arabic: مكة المكرمة, lit. 'Makkah de Honored').[16] Makkah be used to refer to de city insyd de Quran insyd Surah Al-Fath (48), verse 24.[18]

Oda names

Na anoda name dem use give Mecca insyd de Quran be for 6:92 wer na dem call Umm al-Qurā (أُمّ ٱلْقُرَى‎, wey dey mean "Mother of all Settlements").[19] Na dem call de city chaw oda names insyd both de Quran den ahadith. Anoda name dem use historically give Mecca be Tihāmah.[20] According to an Islamic suggestion, anoda name give Mecca, Fārān, be synonymous plus de Desert of Paran dem mention insyd de Old Testament for Genesis 21:21.[21] Arab den Islamic tradition dey hold dat de wilderness of Paran, broadly dey speak, be de Tihamah coastal plain den de site wer na Ishmael settle be Mecca. Yaqut al-Hamawi, de 12th-century Syrian geographer, wrep say Fārān be "an arabized Hebrew word, one of de names of Mecca dem mention insyd de Torah."[22]

History

Prehistory

Insyd 2010, Mecca den de surrounding area cam turn an important site give paleontology plus respect to primate evolution, plus de discovery of a Saadanius fossil. Saadanius be considered e be a primate wey closely relate to de common ancestor of de Old World monkeys den apes. De fossil habitat, near wat be now de Red Sea insyd western Saudi Arabia, na ebe a damp forest area between 28 million den 29 million years ago.[23] Paleontologists involve insyd de research hope make dem find further fossils insyd de area.[24]

Early history (up to 6th century CE)

De early history of Mecca still be largely shrouded by a lack of clear sources. De city dey lie insyd de hinterland of de middle part of western Arabia of wich der be sparse textual anaa archaeological sources available.[25] Dis lack of knowledge dey in contrast to both de northern den southern areas of western Arabia, specifically de Syro-Palestinian frontier den Yemen, wer na historians get chaw sources available such as physical remains of shrines, inscriptions, observations by Greco-Roman authors, den information dem collect by church historians. De area of Hejaz wey dey surround Mecca na ebe characterized by ein remote, rocky, den inhospitable nature, wey dey support meagre settled populations per insyd scattered oases den occasional stretches of fertile land. Na de Red Sea coast offer no easily accessible ports den de oasis dwellers den bedouins insyd de region na dem be illiterate.[25]

Na dem mention Mecca insyd de early Quranic manuscripts wey dey follow:

  • Codex Is. 1615 I, folio 47v, radiocarbon dated to 591–643 CE.
  • Codex Ṣanʿāʾ DAM 01–29.1, folio 29a, radiocarbon dated between 633 den 665 CE.
  • Codex Arabe 331, folio 40 v, radiocarbon dated between 652 den 765 CE.

De earliest Muslim inscriptions be from de Mecca-Ta'if area.[26]

Islamic narrative

Insyd de Islamic view, de beginnings of Mecca be attributed to de Biblical figures, Adam, Abraham, Hagar den Ishmael. Na ebe Adam einself wey build de first God ein house insyd Mecca according to a heavenly prototype buh na dis building be destroyed insyd de Noahic Flood.[25] De civilization of Mecca be believed na e start after Ibrāhīm (Abraham) lef ein son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) den ein wifey Hājar (Hagar) insyd de valley for Allah ein command.Na sam people from de Yemeni tribe of Jurhum settle plus dem, wey Isma'il reportedly marry two women, one after he divorce de first, for Ibrahim ein advice. At least na one man of de Jurhum help Ismāʿīl den ein poppie make dem construct anaa according to Islamic narratives, reconstruct, de Ka'bah ('Cube'), wich go get social, religious, political den historical implications for de site den region.[27][28]

Thamudic inscriptions

Na sam Thamudic inscriptions wich na dem discover insyd de south Jordan contain names of sam individuals such as ʿAbd Mekkat (عَبْد مَكَّة‎, "Servant of Mecca").[29]

Na der sanso be sam oda inscriptions wich contain personal names such as Makki (مَكِّي, "Makkan, of Makkah"), buh na Jawwad Ali from de University of Baghdad suggest dat na der sanso be a probability of a tribe dem name "Makkah".[30]

Under de Quraish

Sam time insyd de 5th century, na de Ka'bah be a place of worship for de deities of Arabia dema pagan tribes. Na Mecca ein most important pagan deity be Hubal, wich na dem place der by de ruling Quraish tribe.[31][32] wey remain until de Conquest of Mecca by Muhammad.Insyd de 5th century, na de Quraish take control of Mecca, wey dem cam turn skilled merchants den traders. Insyd de 6th century, na dem join de lucrative spice trade, since na battles elsewhere dey divert trade routes from dangerous sea routes to more secure overland routes. Na de Byzantine Empire previously control de Red Sea, buh na piracy dey increase.Anoda previous route wey dey run thru de Persian Gulf via de Tigris den Euphrates rivers sanso be threatened by exploitations from de Sassanid Empire, wey na e be disrupted by de Lakhmids, de Ghassanids, den de Roman–Persian Wars. Mecca ein prominence as a trading center sanso surpass de cities of Petra den Palmyra.[33][34] Na de Sassanids however no always pose a threat to Mecca, as insyd 575 CE na dem protect am from a Yemeni invasion, wey be led by ein Christian leader Abraha. Na de tribes of southern Arabia biz de Persian king Khosrau I for aid, for response to wich na he cam south to Arabia plus foot-soldiers den a fleet of ships near Mecca.[35]

De Year of de Elephant (570 CE)

De "Year of de Elephant" be de name insyd Islamic history for de year approximately wey dey equate to 570–572 CE, wen, according to Islamic sources such as Ibn Ishaq, Abraha descend upon Mecca, wey dey ride an elephant, plus a large army after he build a cathedral for San'aa, dem name al-Qullays for honor of de Negus of Axum. Na e gain widespread fame, even e gain attention from de Byzantine Empire. Na Abraha attempt make he divert de pilgrimage of de Arabs from de Ka'bah to al-Qullays, effectively wey go convert dem to Christianity. According to Islamic tradition, na dis be de year of Muhammad ein birth.[36] Na Abraha allegedly send a messenger dem name Muhammad ibn Khuza'i to Mecca den Tihamah plus a message dat al-Qullays be both much better dan oda houses of worship den purer, wey e no be defiled by de housing of idols. Wen na Muhammad ibn Khuza'i get as far as de land of Kinana, de people of de lowland, know wat na he cam for, send a man of Hudhayl dem call ʿUrwa bin Hayyad al-Milasi, wey shoot am plus an arrow, wey he kill am. Na ein bro Qays wey na dey plus am, flee go Abraha wey he tell am de news, whch na e increase ein rage den fury wey he swear to raid de Kinana tribe den destroy de Ka'bah. Ibn Ishaq further dey state dat na one of de men of de Quraysh tribe be angered by dis, wey he go to Sana'a, wey he enter de church for night den defile am; widely dem assume he do so by he defecate insyd am.[37][38]

Economy

Camel caravans, dem say na e first be used by Muhammad ein great-grandpoppie, na ebe a major part of Mecca ein bustling economy. Na alliances be struck between de merchants insyd Mecca den de local nomadic tribes, wey go bring goods – leather, livestock, den metals dem mine insyd de local mountains – to Mecca e be loaded for de caravans wey dem carry go cities insyd Shaam den Iraq.[39] Historical accounts sanso provide sam indication dat goods from oda continents sanso fi flow thru Mecca. Na goods from Africa den de Far East pass thru en route to Syria wey dey include spices, leather, medicine, cloth, den slaves; in return Mecca receive money, weapons, cereals den wine, wich in turn na dem distribute thru out Arabia.Na de Meccans sign treaties plus both de Byzantines den de Bedouins, wey dem negotiate safe passages give caravans, wey dey give dem water den pasture rights. Na Mecca cam turn de center of a loose confederation of client tribes, wich na include those of de Banu Tamim. Na oda regional powers such as de Abyssinians, Ghassanids, den Lakhmids be in decline wey dey lef Meccan trade e be de primary binding force insyd Arabia insyd de late 6th century.[40]

Muhammad den de conquest of Mecca

Makkah Al Mukarramah Library (21°25′30″N 39°49′48″E / 21.42500°N 39.83000°E / 21.42500; 39.83000 (Bayt al-Mawlid / Makkah Al Mukarramah Library)) dem dey believe e be stand for de spot wer na dem born Muhammad, so e sanso be known as Bayt al-Mawlid

Na dem born Muhammad insyd Mecca insyd 570 CE, wey thus na dem link Islam inextricably plus am ever since. Na dem born am into de faction of Banu Hashim insyd de ruling tribe of Quraysh. Na ebe insyd de nearby mountain cave of Hira for Jabal al-Nour wey na Muhammad begin dey receive divine revelations from God thru de archangel Jibreel insyd 610 CE, according to Islamic tradition.

Medieval den pre-modern times

Na Mecca be never de capital of any of de Islamic states. Na Muslim rulers contribute to ein upkeep, such as during de reigns of 'Umar (r. 634–644 CE) den 'Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656 CE) wen concerns of flooding cause de caliphs make dem bring in Christian engineers make dem build barrages insyd de low-lying quarters den construct dykes den embankments make dem protect de area around de Kaaba.[41]

Significance insyd Islam

De Hajj dey involve pilgrims wey dey visit Al-Haram Mosque, buh mainly camping den spending time insyd de plains of Mina den Arafah

Mecca dey hold an important place insyd Islam wey ebe considered de holiest city insyd all branches of de religion. De city dey derive ein importance from de role e dey play insyd de Hajj den 'Umrah den for ein status as de birthplace of Muhammad.

Masjid al-Haram

Kaaba

Main article: Kaaba

Hajr-e-Aswad (De Black Stone)

Maqam Ibrahim

Safa den Marwa

Hajj den 'Umrah

Jabal al-Nour

Hira'a Cave

Geography

Mecca as dem see from de International Space Station. Haram be visible for de center while Mina be visible insyd de east.

Mecca dey locate insyd de Hejaz region, a 200 km (124 mi) wide strip of mountains wey dey separate de Nafud desert from de Red Sea. De city dey situate insyd a valley plus de same name around 70 km (44 mi) east of de port city of Jeddah. Mecca be one of de lowest cities in elevation insyd de Hejaz region, wey locate for an elevation of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level at 21º23' north latitude den 39º51' east longitude. Mecca be divided into 34 districts.

Elevation

Mecca dey for an elevation of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level, den approximately 70 km (44 mi) inland from de Red Sea.[42] E be one of de lowest insyd de Hejaz region, although sam mountain peaks insyd Mecca dey reach 1,000 m (3,300 ft) for height.

Topography

De city center dey lie insyd a corridor between mountains, wich often be called de "Hollow of Mecca". De area dey contain de valley of al-Taneem, de valley of Bakkah den de valley of Abqar.[43] Dis mountainous location define de contemporary expansion of de city.

Climate

Mecca dey feature a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh), insyd three different plant hardiness zones: 10, 11 den 12.[44] Like chaw Saudi Arabian cities, Mecca dey retain warm to hot temperatures even insyd winter, wich fi range from 19 °C (66 °F) for night to 30 °C (86 °F) insyd de afternoon. Summer temperatures be extremely hot den consistently break de 40 °C (104 °F) mark insyd de afternoon, dey drop to 30 °C (86 °F) insyd de evening, buh humidity dey remain relatively low, at 30–40%. Rain usually dey fall insyd Mecca in small amounts scattered between November den January, plus heavy thunderstorms sanso be common during de winter. Na dem associate occasional summer rainfall for recent years plus de northward movement of de Intertropical Convergence Zone.

Climate data for Mecca (1991-2020)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 39.0
(102.2) 		40.0
(104.0) 		42.4
(108.3) 		44.7
(112.5) 		49.4
(120.9) 		51.8
(125.2) 		51.0
(123.8) 		50.0
(122.0) 		49.8
(121.6) 		47.0
(116.6) 		41.2
(106.2) 		39.4
(102.9) 		51.8
(125.2)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 30.9
(87.6) 		32.6
(90.7) 		35.4
(95.7) 		39.0
(102.2) 		42.4
(108.3) 		43.9
(111.0) 		43.2
(109.8) 		42.9
(109.2) 		42.9
(109.2) 		40.4
(104.7) 		35.6
(96.1) 		32.5
(90.5) 		38.5
(101.3)
Daily mean °C (°F) 24.3
(75.7) 		25.4
(77.7) 		27.8
(82.0) 		31.3
(88.3) 		34.6
(94.3) 		36.2
(97.2) 		36.2
(97.2) 		35.9
(96.6) 		35.2
(95.4) 		32.5
(90.5) 		28.7
(83.7) 		25.9
(78.6) 		31.2
(88.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 19.2
(66.6) 		19.9
(67.8) 		21.8
(71.2) 		25.1
(77.2) 		28.1
(82.6) 		29.3
(84.7) 		29.8
(85.6) 		30.1
(86.2) 		29.2
(84.6) 		26.5
(79.7) 		23.4
(74.1) 		20.7
(69.3) 		25.3
(77.5)
Record low °C (°F) 11.0
(51.8) 		10.0
(50.0) 		13.0
(55.4) 		15.6
(60.1) 		20.3
(68.5) 		22.0
(71.6) 		23.4
(74.1) 		23.4
(74.1) 		22.0
(71.6) 		18.0
(64.4) 		16.4
(61.5) 		12.4
(54.3) 		10.0
(50.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 20.7
(0.81) 		2.5
(0.10) 		5.2
(0.20) 		8.3
(0.33) 		2.6
(0.10) 		0.0
(0.0) 		1.4
(0.06) 		5.8
(0.23) 		6.3
(0.25) 		14.1
(0.56) 		23.2
(0.91) 		24.7
(0.97) 		104.6
(4.12)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 1.8 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.7 1.1 1.7 1.3 9.6
Average relative humidity (%) (daily average) 58 54 48 43 36 33 34 39 45 50 58 59 46
Mean monthly sunshine hours 260.4 245.8 282.1 282.0 303.8 321.0 313.1 297.6 282.0 300.7 264.0 248.0 3,400.5
Mean daily sunshine hours 8.4 8.7 9.1 9.4 9.8 10.7 10.1 9.6 9.4 9.7 8.8 8.0 9.3
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization,[45] Jeddah Regional Climate Center[46]
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sunshine hours, 1986–2000)[47]

Human resources

De Saudi government dey provide healthcare free of charge to all pilgrims. Der be ten main hospitals insyd Mecca:[48]

  • Ajyad Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى أَجْيَاد‎)
  • King Faisal Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْمَلِك فَيْصَل بِحَي ٱلشّشه‎)
  • King Abdulaziz Hospital (Arabic: مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْمَلِك عَبْد ٱلْعَزِيْز بِحَي ٱلـزَّاهِر‎)
  • Al Noor Specialist Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلنُّوْر ٱلتَّخَصُّصِي‎)
  • Hira'a Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى حِرَاء‎)
  • Maternity and Children's Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْوِلَادَة وَٱلْأَطْفَال‎)
  • King Abdullah Medical City (مَدِيْنَة ٱلْمَلِك عَبْد ٱلله ٱلطِّبِيَّة‎)
  • Khulais General Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى خُلَيْص ٱلْعَام‎)
  • Al Kamel General Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْكَامِل ٱلْعَام‎)
  • Ibn Sina Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ابْن سِيْنَا بِحَدَاء / بَحْرَه‎)

Der sanso be chaw walk-in clinics available give both residents den pilgrims. Dem set up chaw temporary clinics during de Hajj make dem tend to wounded pilgrims.

References

  1. ↑ Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2001. p. 724. ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9.
  2. ↑ "Makkah (Makkah al-Mukarramah, Mecca Region, Saudi Arabia) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map, Location, Weather and Web Information". City Population. Retrieved 2024-02-03.
  3. ↑ "Hajj The Holy Pilgrimage". Salamislam. 3 January 2021. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
  4. ↑ "Euromonitor International's report reveals world's Top 100…". Euromonitor. 2023-12-13. Retrieved 2024-02-29.
  5. ↑ Ogle, Vanessa (2015). The Global Transformation of Time: 1870–1950. Harvard University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-674-28614-6. Mecca, "the fountainhead and cradle of Islam," would be the center of Islamic timekeeping.
  6. ↑ Nicholson, Reynold A. (2013). Literary History Of The Arabs. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-136-17016-4. Mecca was the cradle of Islam, and Islam, according to Muhammad, is the religion of Abraham.
  7. ↑ Khan, A M (2003). Historical Value Of The Qur An And The Hadith. Global Vision Publishing Ho. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-81-87746-47-8.
  8. ↑ Nasr, Seyyed (2005). Mecca, The Blessed, Medina, The Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam. Aperture. ISBN 0-89381-752-X.
  9. ↑ Versteegh, Kees (2008). C.H.M. Versteegh; Kees Versteegh (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic language and linguistics, Volume 4 (Illustrated ed.). Brill. p. 513. ISBN 978-90-04-14476-7.
  10. ↑ Quran 3:96
  11. ↑ Peterson, Daniel C. (2007). Muhammad, prophet of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 22–25. ISBN 978-0-8028-0754-0.
  12. ↑ Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic dictionary of archaeology (Illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 342. ISBN 978-0-306-46158-3.
  13. ↑ Glassé, Cyril & Smith, Huston (2003). The new encyclopedia of Islam (Revised, illustrated ed.). Rowman Altamira. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6.
  14. ↑ Phipps, William E. (1999). Muhammad and Jesus: a comparison of the prophets and their teachings (Illustrated ed.). Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-8264-1207-2.
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  19. ↑ Philip Khûri Hitti (1973). Capital cities of Arab Islam (Illustrated ed.). University of Minnesota Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8166-0663-4.
  20. ↑ AlSahib, AlMuheet fi Allughah, p. 303
  21. ↑ Sayyid Aḥmad Khān (1870). A series of essays on the life of Muhammad: and subjects subsidiary thereto. London: Trübner & co. pp. 74–76.
  22. ↑ Firestone, Reuven (1990). Title Journeys in holy lands: the evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael legends in Islamic exegesis. SUNY Press. pp. 65, 205. ISBN 978-0-7914-0331-0.
  23. ↑ Sample, Ian (14 July 2010). "Ape ancestors brought to life by fossil skull of 'Saadanius' primate". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016.
  24. ↑ Laursen, Lucas (2010). "Fossil skull fingered as ape–monkey ancestor". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.354. ISSN 0028-0836.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Peters, F. E. (1994). Mecca: a Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-1-4008-8736-1. OCLC 978697983.
  26. ↑ Hoyland, Robert (1997). Seeing Islam as others saw it. Darwin Press. p. 565. ISBN 0-87850-125-8.
  27. ↑ Glassé, Cyril (1991). "Kaaba". The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-0606-3126-0.
  28. ↑ Lings, Martin (1983). Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 978-0-946621-33-0.
  29. ↑ G. Lankester Harding & Enno Littman, Some Thamudic Inscriptions from the Hashimite Kingdom of the Jordan (Leiden, Netherlands – 1952), p. 19, Inscription No. 112A
  30. ↑ Jawwad Ali, The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam (1993), Vol.
  31. ↑ Hawting, G.R. (1980). "The Disappearance and Rediscovery of Zamzam and the 'Well of the Ka'ba'". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 43 (1): 44–54 (44). doi:10.1017/S0041977X00110523. JSTOR 616125. S2CID 162654756.
  32. ↑ Islamic World, p. 20
  33. ↑ "Makka – The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods", Encyclopaedia of Islam
  34. ↑ Lapidus, p. 14
  35. ↑ Bauer, S. Wise (2010). The history of the medieval world: from the conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-393-05975-5.
  36. ↑ Hajjah Adil, Amina (2002). Prophet Muhammad. ISCA. ISBN 1-930409-11-7.
  37. ↑ "Abraha." Archived 13 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine Dictionary of African Christian Biographies.
  38. ↑ Müller, Walter W. (1987) "Outline of the History of Ancient Southern Arabia" Archived 10 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, in Werner Daum (ed.), Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix.
  39. ↑ Islamic World, pp. 17–18
  40. ↑ Lapidus, pp. 16–17
  41. ↑ "Makka – The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods", Encyclopaedia of Islam
  42. ↑ Islamic World, p. 13
  43. ↑ "Makka – The Modern City", Encyclopaedia of Islam
  44. ↑ Millison, Andrew (August 2019). "Climate Analogue Examples". Permaculture Design: Tools for Climate Resilience (in English). Oregon State University. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  45. ↑ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  46. ↑ "Climate Data for Saudi Arabia". Jeddah Regional Climate Center. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
  47. ↑ "Klimatafel von Mekka (al-Makkah) / Saudi-Arabien" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
  48. ↑ "وزارة الصحة - بوابة الخدمات الإلكترونية". www.moh.gov.sa. Retrieved 2025-04-14.

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Read further

  • Bianca, Stefano (2000). "Case Study 1: The Holy Cities of Islam – The Impact of Mass Transportation and Rapid Urban Change". Urban Form in the Arab World. Zurich: ETH Zurich. ISBN 978-3-7281-1972-8. 0500282056.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund, ed. (2007). "Mecca". Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill.
  • Dumper, Michael R. T.; Stanley, Bruce E., eds. (2008). "Makkah". Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
  • Rosenthal, Franz; Ibn Khaldun (1967). The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09797-8.
  • Watt, W. Montgomery. "Makka – The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 6 June 2008
  • Winder, R.B. "Makka – The Modern City." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 2008
  • "Quraysh". Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (online). 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.

Online

  • Mecca Saudi Arabia, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by John Bagot Glubb, Assʿad Sulaiman Abdo, Swati Chopra, Darshana Das, Michael Levy, Gloria Lotha, Michael Ray, Surabhi Sinha, Noah Tesch, Amy Tikkanen, Grace Young and Adam Zeidan
Dem retrieve am from "https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mecca&oldid=56059"