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Muhammad
human
Part ofUlu'l-azm, prophet, prophet of Islam, prophet of Islam that mentioned on the Qur'an, Q12180772 Edit
Ein sex anaa gendermale Edit
Name in native languageمُحَمَّدُ بْنُ عَبْدِ اللهِ بْنِ عَبْدِ الْمُطَّلِبِ Edit
Name wey dem give amMuhammad Edit
Short nameمحمد, Muḥammad, Mohammadu, Mahoma Edit
Ein date of birth20 April 571 Edit
Place dem born amMecca Edit
Date wey edie8 June 632 Edit
Place wey edieMedina Edit
Place wey dem bury amSacred Prophetic Chamber Edit
Ein poppieAbd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib Edit
MummieAminah Edit
FamilyBanu Hashim Edit
Native languageArabic Edit
Languages edey speak, rep anaa signArabic Edit
StudentAnas ibn Malik, Abd Allah ibn Abbas, Uqbah ibn Amir, Zayd ibn Thabit Edit
Honorific suffixPeace be upon him Edit
ResidenceMecca, Medina Edit
Ethnic groupArabs Edit
Religion anaa worldviewHanif, Islam Edit
ConflictExpeditions of Muhammad Edit
Military unitarmy of Mohammad Edit
Owner ofSeal of Mohammad Edit
Significant eventHijra Edit
Studied byscience of hadith Edit
MountQaswa, Ya`fūr Edit
Has works in the collectionMuseo Diocesano de Tarragona Edit
Copyright status as creatorcopyrights on works have expired Edit
Facial hairbeard Edit
TribeQuraysh Edit
Stack Exchange taghttps://islam.stackexchange.com/tags/prophet-muhammad Edit

Muhammad (c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) na he be an Arab religious den political leader den de founder of Islam. According to Islam, na he be a prophet wey dem divinely inspire am make he preach den confirm de monotheistic teachings of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, den oda prophets. Dem dey believe he be de Seal of de Prophets insyd Islam, den along plus de Quran, ein teachings den normative examples form de basis for Islamic religious belief.

Na dem born Muhammad c. 570 CE insyd Mecca. Na he be de son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib den Amina bint Wahb. Ein poppie, Abdullah, de son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, die around de time na dem born Muhammad. Ein mommie Amina die wen na he dey six, wey e lef Muhammad an orphan. Na he be raised under de care of ein grandpoppie, Abd al-Muttalib, den paternal uncle, Abu Talib. Insyd later years, he go periodically seclude einself insyd a mountain cave dem name Hira for chaw nights of prayer. Wen na he be 40, c. 610, na dem report say Gabriel visit Muhammad insyd de cave wey he receive ein first revelation from God. Insyd 613, Muhammad start dey preach dese revelations publicly, wey he dey proclaim say 'God be One', dat complete 'submission' (Islām) to God (Allāh) be de right way of life (dīn), den dat na he be a prophet den messenger of God, similar to de oda prophets insyd Islam.[1]

Na Muhammad ein followers initially be few in number, wey dem experience persecution by Meccan polytheists for 13 years. Make dem escape ongoing persecution, he send sam of ein followers to Abyssinia insyd 615, before he den ein followers migrate from Mecca to Medina (then dem know am as Yathrib) later insyd 622. Dis event, de Hijrah, dey mark de beginning of de Islamic calendar, dem sanso know am as de Hijri calendar. Insyd Medina, Muhammad unite de tribes under de Constitution of Medina. Insyd December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting plus Meccan tribes, Muhammad gather an army of 10,000 Muslim converts wey dem march on de city of Mecca. Na de conquest largely go uncontested, wey Muhammad seize de city plus minimal casualties. Insyd 632, a few months after he return from de Farewell Pilgrimage, he fall ill den die. By de time of ein death, na chaw of de Arabian Peninsula convert to Islam.

De revelations (waḥy) wey dem report Muhammad receive til ein death form de verses (āyah) of de Quran, upon wich Islam dey base, dem be regarded by Muslims as de verbatim word of God den ein final revelation. Besides de Quran, Muhammad ein teachings den practices, dem find insyd transmitted reports, dem know as hadith, den insyd ein biography (sīrah), dem sanso uphold den use as sources of Islamic law. Apart from Islam, dem dey regard Muhammad as one of de prophets insyd de Druze faith den a Manifestation of God insyd de Baháʼí Faith.

Biographical sources

Two folios of de Birmingham Quran manuscript, an early manuscript dem wrep insyd Hijazi script likely date within Muhammad ein lifetime between c. 568–645

Quran

De Quran be de central religious text of Islam. Muslims dey believe e dey represent de words of God reveal by de archangel Gabriel to Muhammad.[2][3] De Quran dey mainly address to a single "Messenger of God" wey be referred to as Muhammad insyd a number of verses. De Quranic text sanso dey describe de settlement of ein followers insyd Yathrib after dema expulsion by de Quraysh, wey dey briefly mention military encounters such as de Muslim victory at Badr.[4]

De Quran, however, dey provide minimal assistance for Muhammad ein chronological biography; chaw Quranic verses no dey provide significant historical context den timeline. Dem no mention by name almost none of Muhammad ein companions insyd de Quran, hence no dey provide sufficient information for a concise biography.[4] Na dem radiocarbon date Birmingham Quran manuscript to between 568 den 645, though na de manuscript ein discoverer assert say de text for de parchment be from a later date.[5]

Early biographies

An early manuscript of Ibn Hisham ein al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, dem believe say na dem transmit am by ein students shortly after ein death insyd 833

Important sources wey dey regard Muhammad ein life dem fi be found insyd de historic works by writers of de 2nd den 3rd centuries of de Hijri era (mostly dey overlap am plus de 8th den 9th centuries CE respectively). Dese dey include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, wich provide additional information about ein life.[6]

Hadith

Early manuscript of de Muwatta of Malik ibn Anas, dem date within ein lifetime insyd c. 780

Oda important sources dey include de hadith collections, accounts of verbal den physical teachings den traditions dem attribute to Muhammad. Na dem compile Hadiths by chaw generations after ein death by Muslims wey dey include Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi, Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai, Abu Dawood, Ibn Majah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Daraqutni.[7][8]

Meccan years

Early life

Na dem born Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim[9] insyd Mecca c. 570, wey dem dey believe ein birthday be insyd de month of Rabi' al-Awwal. He belong to de Banu Hashim clan of de Quraysh tribe, wich na ebe a dominant force insyd western Arabia. While na ein clan be one of de more distinguished insyd de tribe, e dey seem e experience a lack of prosperity during ein early years.According to Muslim tradition, na Muhammad be a hanif, someone wey profess monotheism insyd pre-Islamic Arabia.[10] Dem sanso claim he be a descendant of Ishmael, Abraham ein son.[11]

Miniature from Rashid al-Din Hamadani ein , c. 1315, wey dey illustrate de story of Muhammad ein role insyd re-setting de Black Stone insyd 605 (Ilkhanate period)

Beginnings of de Quran

De cave Hira insyd de mountain Jabal al-Nour wer, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad receive ein first revelation

De financial security Muhammad enjoy from Khadija, ein wealthy wifey, give am chaw free time make he spend insyd solitude insyd de cave of Hira.[12][13] According to Islamic tradition, insyd 610, wen na he be 40 years old, de angel Gabriel appear to am during visit to de cave.[14] De angel show am a cloth plus Quranic verses for ein top wey he instruct am make he read. Wen Muhammad confess ein illiteracy, Gabriel choke am forcefully, nearly suffocate am, wey he repeat de command. As Muhammad reiterate ein inability to read, Gabriel san choke am insyd a similar manner. Dis sequence take place once more before Gabriel finally recite de verses, wey he allow Muhammad make he memorize dem.[15][16][17] Dese verses later constitute Quran 96:1-5.[18]

Opposition insyd Mecca

Around 613, na Muhammad begin dey preach to de public;[19][20] na chaw of ein first followers be women, freedmen, servants, slaves, den oda members of de lower social class.[21] Na dese converts keenly await each new revelation from Muhammad; wen he recite am, dem all go repeat after am den memorize am, den de literate ones record am for writing insyd.[22] Muhammad sanso introduce rituals to ein group wich include prayer (salat) plus physical postures wey na dem embody complete surrender (Islam) to God, den almsgiving (zakat) as a requirement of de Muslim community (ummah).[23] By dis point, na dem know Muhammad ein religious movement as tazakka ('purification').[24][25]

Quraysh delegation to Yathrib

Na de leaders of de Quraysh send Nadr ibn al-Harith den Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt to Yathrib make dem seek de opinions of de Jewish rabbis regarding Muhammad. De rabbis advise dem make dem biz Muhammad three questions: recount de tale of young men wey venture forth insyd de first age; narrate de story of a traveler wey reach both de eastern den western ends of de earth; den provide details about de spirit. If Muhammad answer correctly, na dem state say, he go be a Prophet; otherwise, he go be a liar. Wen na dem return to Mecca wey dem biz Muhammad de questions, he tell dem say he go provide de answers de next day. However, na 15 days pass widout a response from ein God, wey lead to gossip among de Meccans wey na e cause Muhammad distress. For sam point later, de angel Gabriel cam to Muhammad wey he provide am plus de answers.[26][27]

Migration to Abyssinia den de incident of Satanic Verses

Insyd 615, na Muhammad send sam of ein followers make dem emigrate to de Abyssinian Kingdom of Aksum wey dem find a small colony under de protection of de Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[28] Na among those wey depart be Umm Habiba, de daughter of one of de Quraysh chiefs, Abu Sufyan, den ein husby.[29] Na de Quraysh then send two men make dem retrieve dem. Secof na leatherwork for de time be highly prized insyd Abyssinia, dem gather a lot of skins wey dem transport dem der so dem fi distribute sam to each of de kingdom ein generals. Buh na de king firmly reject dema request.[30]

Na dem report dis Satanic Verses incident en masse wey na nearly all of de major biographers of Muhammad insyd Islam ein first two centuries document am,[31] wich according to dem dey correspond to Quran 22:52. Buh since de rise of de hadith movement den systematic theology plus ein new doctrines, wey dey include de Ismah, wich claim say na Muhammad be infallible den thus no fi be fooled by Satan, na dem reevaluate de historical memory of de early community. By de 20th century, Muslim scholars unanimously reject dis incident.[32]

Attempt make he establish einself insyd Ta'if

Insyd 619, na Muhammad face a period of sorrow. Na ein wifey, Khadija, a crucial source of ein financial den emotional support, die.[33] Insyd de same year, na ein uncle den guardian, Abu Talib, sanso die.[34][35] Despite Muhammad ein persuasions to Abu Talib make he embrace Islam for ein deathbed top, he clung to ein polytheistic beliefs til de end.[36][37] Muhammad ein oda uncle, Abu Lahab, wey succeed de Banu Hashim clan leadership, na he initially be willing say he go provide Muhammad plus protection. However, upon he hear from Muhammad say na dem destine Abu Talib den Abd al-Muttalib for hell secof dem no believe insyd Islam, he withdraw ein support.[37][38]

Muhammad then go Ta'if make he try establish einself insyd de city den gain aid den protection against de Meccans, buh na dem meet am plus a response: "If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn't He protect you? And if Allah wished to send a prophet, couldn't He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?"[39] Na he realize say ein efforts be in vain, Muhammad biz de people of Ta'if make dem keep de matter a secret, wey he dey fear say dis go embolden de hostility of de Quraysh against am. However, instead of make dem accept ein request, dem pelt am plus stones, wey dem injure ein limbs. He eventually evade dis chaos den persecution by he escape go de garden of Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, a Meccan chief plus a summer residence insyd Ta'if. Na Muhammad feel despair secof de unexpected rejection den hostility he receive insyd de city; for dis point, he realize he get no security anaa protection except from God, so he begin dey pray. Shortly der after, na Utbah ein Christian slave Addas stop by wey he offer am grapes, wich na Muhammad accept. By de end of de encounter, na Addas feel overwhelm wey he kiss Muhammad ein head, hands, den feet in recognition of ein prophethood.[40][41]

Isra' den Mi'raj

Quranic inscriptions for de Dome of de Rock. E dey mark de spot wer Muslims believe Muhammad ascend go heaven.

E be for dis low point insyd Muhammad ein life wey de accounts insyd de Sīrah lay out de famous Isra' den Mi'raj. Nowadays, Muslims dey believe Isra' be de journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem, while Mi'raj be from Jerusalem to de heavens. Der be consider a no substantial basis for de Mi'raj insyd de Quran, as de Quran no dey address am directly.

Verse 17:1 of de Quran dey recount Muhammad ein night journey from a revered place of prayer to de most distant place of worship. De Kaaba, holy enclosure insyd Mecca, dem widely accept am as de starting point, buh der be disagreement among Islamic traditions as to wat dey constitute "de farthest place of worship". Sam modern scholars dey maintain dat na de earliest tradition see dis faraway site as a celestial twin of de Kaaba, so dat Muhammad ein journey take am directly from Mecca thru de heavens. A later tradition, however, dey refer to am as Bayt al-Maqdis, wich be generally associated plus Jerusalem. Over time, dese different traditions merge to present de journey as one wey begin insyd Mecca, wey he pass thru Jerusalem, wey he then ascend to heaven.

Migration to Medina

As na resistance to ein proselytism insyd Mecca grow, Muhammad begin dey limit ein efforts to non-Meccans wey attend fairs anaa dem make pilgrimages. During dis period, Muhammad get an encounter plus six individuals from de Banu Khazraj. Na dese men get a history of raiding Jews insyd dema locality, wey in turn go warn dem say dem go send a prophet make he punish dem. For hearing Muhammad ein religious message, dem say to each oda, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us. Don't let them get to him before us!" Upon dem embrace Islam, dem return to Medina wey dem share dema encounter, dey hope say dem get dema people—de Khazraj den de Aws, wey na e been for odds for so long—accept Islam wey dem adopt Muhammad as dema leader, dem fi achieve unity between dem.

Medinan years

Building de religious community insyd Medina

A few days after he settle insyd Medina, Muhammad negotiate for de purchase of a piece of land; upon dis plot, de Muslims begin dey construct a building wey go cam turn Muhammad ein residence as well as a community wey dey gather place (masjid) for prayer (salat). Na dem use tree trunks as pillars make dem hold up de roof, wey der be no fancy pulpit; instead, na Muhammad stand for ein top of a small stool make he speak to de congregation. Na dem plete de structure after about seven months insyd April 623, wey e cam be de first Muslim building den mosque; ein northern wall get a stone wey dey mark de direction of prayer (qibla) wich na ebe Jerusalem for dat time. Na Muhammad use de building to host public den political meetings, as well as a place give de poor make dem gather to receive alms, food, den care. Na dem sanso dey allow Christians den Jews make dem participate insyd community worship for de mosque. Initially, na Muhammad ein religion no get organized way to call de community to prayer insyd a coordinated manner. To resolve dis, na Muhammad consider make dem use a ram ein horn (shofar) like de Jews anaa a wooden clapper like de Christians, buh one of de Muslims insyd de community dream wer a man insyd a green cloak tell am say sam one plus a loud booming voice for announce de service by crying out "Allahu Akbar" ('God be greater') make he remind Muslims of dema top priority; wen Muhammad hear about dis dream, he agree plus de idea wey he select Bilal, a former Abyssinian slave dem know for ein loud voice.

Constitution of Medina

Na de Constitution of Medina be a legal covenant wey Muhammad wrep. Insyd de constitution, Medina ein Arab den Jewish tribes promise make dem live peacefully alongsyd de Muslims den make dem refrain from making a separate treaty plus Mecca. E sanso guarantee de Jews freedom of religion. Insyd de agreement, na dem require everyone under ein jurisdiction make dem defend den protect de oasis if dem attack am. Politically, na de agreement help Muhammad better understand wich people dey for ein side. Ibn Ishaq, dey follow ein narration of de Hijrah, maintain dat na Muhammad pen de text den divulge ein assumed content widout supplying any isnad anaa corroboration. Dem generally deem de appellation imprecise, as de text neither establish a state anaa enact Quranic statutes, buh rather e address tribal matters. While scholars from both de West den de Muslim world agree for de text ein authenticity, disagreements persist for whether na ebe a treaty anaa a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, de number of documents e comprise, de primary parties, de specific timing of ein creation (anaa dat of ein constituent parts), whether na dem draft am before anaa after Muhammad ein removal of de three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, den de proper approach to translating am.

Beginning of armed conflict

Dey follow de emigration, de people of Mecca seize property of Muslim emigrants to Medina.[42] War go later break out between de people of Mecca den de Muslims. Muhammad deliver Quranic verses wey dey permit Muslims make dem fight de Meccans.[43] According to de traditional account, for 11 February 624, while praying insyd de Masjid al-Qiblatayn insyd Medina, Muhammad receive revelations from God wey he for face Mecca rather dan Jerusalem during prayer. Na Muhammad adjust to de new direction, wey ein companions wey dey pray plus am follow ein lead, beginning de tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.

Conflicts plus Jewish tribes

Once na dem finalise de ransom arrangements for de Meccan captives, he initiate a siege for de Banu Qaynuqa, dem regard dem as de weakest den wealthiest of Medina ein three main Jewish tribes.

Meccan retaliation

Insyd 625, na de Quraysh, weary by Muhammad ein continuous attacks for dema caravans, decide make dem take decisive action. Abu Sufyan wey lead, na dem assemble an army make dem oppose Muhammad.

Raid for de Banu Mustaliq dema top

Battle of de Trench

Invasion of de Banu Qurayza

Incidents plus de Banu Fazara

Treaty of Hudaybiyya

Invasion of Khaybar

Final years

Conquest of Mecca

A depiction from de Siyer-i Nebi of Muhammad wey dey advance on Mecca, plus dem veil ein face. Dem sanso show angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil den Azrael.

Farewell pilgrimage

For February 631, Muhammad receive a revelation wey dey grant idolaters four months of grace, after wich de Muslims go attack, kill, den plunder dem wer ver dem meet.

During de 632 pilgrimage season, Muhammad personally lead de ceremonies wey he give a sermon. Among de key points dem highlight he say be de prohibition of usury den vendettas wey relate to past murders from de pre-Islamic era; de brotherhood of all Muslims; den de adoption of twelve lunar months widout intercalation.

Death

After he pray for de burial site insyd June 632, Muhammad suffer a dreadful headache wey make am cry in pain. He continue to spend de night plus each of ein wifeys one by one, buh na he faint insyd Maymunah ein hut. Na he request ein wifeys make dem allow am make he stay insyd Aisha ein hut. Na he no fi walk der widout leaning for Ali den Fadl ibn Abbas dema top, as na ein legs dey tremble. Na ein wifeys den ein uncle al-Abbas feed am an Abyssinian remedy wen na he be unconscious.

Tomb

Na dem bury Muhammad wer he die insyd Aisha ein house.[44] During de reign of de Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, na dem expand de Prophet's Mosque make e include de site of Muhammad ein tomb.[45] Na de Green Dome above de tomb be built by de Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun insyd de 13th century, although na dem add de green color insyd de 16th century, under de reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[46] Among tombs adjacent to dat of Muhammad be those of ein companions (Sahabah), de first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr den Umar, den an empty one wey Muslims believe dey await Jesus.[47][48]

Succession

Expansion of de caliphate, 622–750 CE:
  Muhammad, 622–632 CE
  Rashidun caliphate, 632–661 CE
  Umayyad caliphate, 661–750 CE

Plus Muhammad ein death, na disagreement break out over who go be ein successor. Na Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominate Abu Bakr, Muhammad ein paddie den collaborator. Plus additional support, na dem confirm Abu Bakr as de first caliph.

Household

De tomb of Muhammad dey locate insyd de quarters of ein third wifey, Aisha (Prophet's Mosque, Medina).

Muhammad ein life be traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra insyd Mecca (570–622), den post-hijra insyd Medina (622–632). Dem say na Muhammad get thirteen wifeys in total (although two get ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd den Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wifey anaa concubine[49]).

Na dem say Khadija get four daughters plus Muhammad (Ruqayya bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) den two sons (Abd Allah ibn Muhammad den Qasim ibn Muhammad, both die insyd dema kiddie time). All buh one of ein daughters, Fatimah, die before am. Sam Shia scholars contend say na Fatimah be Muhammad ein daughter per.[50] Na Maria al-Qibtiyya bear am a son dem name Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, wey die at two years old.[51]

Na nine of Muhammad ein wifeys survive am.[49]

References

  1. ↑ See: Welch, Moussalli & Newby 2009 Esposito 1998, pp. 9, 12 Esposito 2002, pp. 4–5 Peters 2003, p. 9 Buhl & Welch 1993
  2. ↑ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  3. ↑ Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I. B. Tauris.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Watt, William Montgomery; Sinai, Nicolai (2024). "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
  5. ↑ Shoemaker, Stephen J. (2022). "3 Radiocarbon Dating and the Origins of the Qur'an". Creating the Qur’an: A Historical-Critical Study. University of California Press. p. 80. JSTOR j.ctv2tbwqhq.7.
  6. ↑ Reeves 2003, pp. 6–7.
  7. ↑ Lewis, Bernard (1993). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0195090611.
  8. ↑ Jonathan, A. C. Brown (2007). The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon. Brill. p. 9. ISBN 978-90-04-15839-9. We can discern three strata of the Sunni ḥadīth canon. The perennial core has been the Ṣaḥīḥayn. Beyond these two foundational classics, some fourth-/tenth-century scholars refer to a four-book selection that adds the two Sunans of Abū Dāwūd (d. 275/889) and al-Nāsaʾī (d. 303/915). The Five Book canon, which is first noted in the sixth/twelfth century, incorporates the Jāmiʿ of al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892). Finally, the Six Book canon, which hails from the same period, adds either the Sunan of Ibn Mājah (d. 273/887), the Sunan of al-Dāraquṭnī (d. 385/995) or the Muwaṭṭaʾ of Mālik b. Anas (d. 179/796). Later ḥadīth compendia often included other collections as well. None of these books, however, has enjoyed the esteem of al-Bukhārīʼs and Muslimʼs works.
  9. ↑ Muhammad Archived 9 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
  10. ↑ Turner, Colin (2005). Islam: The Basics. Vol. 1. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 9780415341066.
  11. ↑ Jacobs, Louis (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 9780198264637.
  12. ↑ Rodgers 2012, p. 35.
  13. ↑ Netton 2013, p. 235.
  14. ↑ Conrad 1987.
  15. ↑ Peterson 2007, p. 51.
  16. ↑ Klein 1906, p. 7.
  17. ↑ Wensinck & Rippen 2002.
  18. ↑ Rosenwein 2018, p. 148.
  19. ↑ Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami (2003), The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments, pp. 26–27. UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6.
  20. ↑ Ramadan 2007, pp. 37–39.
  21. ↑ Armstrong 2013, p. 2, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.
  22. ↑ Armstrong 2007, pp. 4, 46, Introduction.
  23. ↑ Armstrong 2013, p. 14, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.
  24. ↑ Armstrong 2013, p. 15, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.
  25. ↑ Watt 1953, p. 68.
  26. ↑ Ṣallābī 2005, pp. 460–461.
  27. ↑ Peterson 2007, p. 75.
  28. ↑ Buhl & Welch 1993.
  29. ↑ Cheikh 2015, p. 32.
  30. ↑ Peters 1994, pp. 173–174.
  31. ↑ Ahmed 2017, pp. 256–257.
  32. ↑ Ahmed, Shahab (1998). "Ibn Taymiyyah and the Satanic Verses". Studia Islamica. 87 (87). Maisonneuve & Larose: 67–124. doi:10.2307/1595926. ISSN 0585-5292. JSTOR 1595926.
  33. ↑ Lapidus 2012, p. 184.
  34. ↑ Rodinson 2021, p. 134.
  35. ↑ Brown 2011, p. 22.
  36. ↑ Rodinson 2021, p. 135.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Brown 2011, p. 22.
  38. ↑ Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1977, p. 39
  39. ↑ Adil 2002, pp. 145–146.
  40. ↑ Muhammad ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 280, in A. Guillaume, trans. and ed., The Life of Muhammad London, 1955, p. 193.
  41. ↑ Watt, William Montgomery (1988). The History of al-Ṭabarī. Vol. 6: Muhammad at Mecca. State University of New York Press. pp. 116–117. ISBN 978-1-4384-2340-1.
  42. ↑ Fazlur Rahman 1979, p. 21.
  43. ↑ John Kelsay 1993, p. 21.
  44. ↑ Leila Ahmed 1986, 665–691 (686)
  45. ↑ Ariffin, Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed (2005). Architectural Conservation in Islam: Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque. Penerbit UTM. p. 88. ISBN 978-983-52-0373-2.
  46. ↑ "Prophet's Mosque". Archnet.org. 2 May 2005. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
  47. ↑ "Isa", Encyclopaedia of Islam.
  48. ↑ Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Adil; Kabbani, Shaykh Hisham (2002). The Path to Spiritual Excellence. ISCA. ISBN 978-1-930409-18-7.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Wives of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
  50. ↑ Ordoni, Abu-Muhammad (1987). Rahmati, Muhammad Sadeq (ed.). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. pp. 32, 42–44.
  51. ↑ Awde, Nicholas; Hill, Fred James (2003). A History of the Islamic World. Hippocrene Books. p. 24. ISBN 9780781810159.

Sources

Encyclopaedia of Islam

Dem retrieve am from "https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muhammad&oldid=56140"