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Niger Delta

From Wikipedia
Niger Delta
river delta
CountryNigeria, Guinea-Bissau, Benin, Mali, Niger Edit
Edey de administrative territorial entity insydTambakounda, Bamako, Timbuktu, Lokoja, Onitsha North Edit
Located in time zoneUTC+01:00 Edit
Coordinate location5°19′34″N 6°28′15″E, 4°50′0″N 6°0′0″E Edit
Delta ofNiger River Edit
Category for maps or plansCategory:Maps of Niger Delta Edit
View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).

De Niger Delta be de delta of de Niger River wey dey sit directly for de Gulf of Guinea top for de Atlantic Ocean top for Nigeria insyd.[1][2] Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone.

De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de Oil Rivers sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.[3] De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate.

De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.[4][5][6][7] De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.[8][9]

Geography

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De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km2 (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.[10] Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.[3]

De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.[11]

Demographics

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De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd.

De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,[12] Edoid languages.[8]

History

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Colonial period

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De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio.

For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.[12]

Post-colonial period

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For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi.

A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.[13] Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State.

Nigerian Civil War

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Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.[14][15][16] During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence.

Non-violent resistance

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Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.[17]

Recent armed conflict

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Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.[18] Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: "We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd."[19]

Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an "oil war" thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.[20] For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education.

Sub-regions

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Western Niger Delta dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" for demma formation of "Protectorates" insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria.

Central Niger Delta dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd.

Eastern Niger Delta dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara).

Nigerian oil

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Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m3) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.[21] De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.[22] Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.[23] Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise "97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues".[24] More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m3 per day.[25] Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, [26] although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.[27] (Make you sanso see gas flaring volumes). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, "...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change."[28] De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND.

For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil & Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m3) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m3) of oil per day within four years.

Oil revenue derivation

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Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships.

Oil revenue sharing formula
Year Federal State* Local Special Projects Derivation Formula**
1958 40% 60% 0% 0% 50%
1968 80% 20% 0% 0% 10%
1977 75% 22% 3% 0% 10%
1982 55% 32.5% 10% 2.5% 10%
1989 50% 24% 15% 11% 10%
1995 48.5% 24% 20% 7.5% 13%
2001 48.5% 24% 20% 7.5% 13%

* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.

**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state. World Bank Report Archived 2016-09-21 at the Wayback Machine

Media

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De documentary film Sweet Crude, wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.[29]

Environmental issues

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De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.[30] Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top.

Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km2. De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.[31] De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.[31]

Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.[31]

Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.[32] Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,[33] as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.[34] Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.[35] Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.[35] For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.[35] Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.[36]

Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.[31] Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say "De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,"[37]. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am.

De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.[38]

Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.[39]

Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.[39]

Notes

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  1. ↑ C. Michael Hogan, "Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.), Encyclopedia of Earth Archived 2013-04-20 at the Wayback Machine, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013
  2. ↑ Umoh, Unyime U.; Li, Li; Wang, Junjian; Kauluma, Ndamononghenda; Asuquo, Francis E.; Akpan, Ekom R. (August 2022). "Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea". Organic Geochemistry. 170 104461. Bibcode:2022OrGeo.17004461U. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461. S2CID 249615285.
  3. 1 2 Otoabasi, Akpan (2011). The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan. Spectrum Books.
  4. ↑ "'Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction". NBC News (in English). 2021-04-07. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
  5. ↑ "Fighting ecocide in Nigeria". theecologist.org (in English). 5 February 2014. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
  6. ↑ "UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making?". unpo.org. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
  7. ↑ "How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster". The Guardian (in British English). 2011-08-22. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-07-06.
  8. 1 2 Aghalino, S.O (2004). Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. Maiduguri journal of Historical studies.
  9. ↑ Dakolo, Bubaraye (2021). The Riddle of the Oil Thief. Lagos: Purple Shelves. pp. 117–170. ISBN 978-978-988-990-7.
  10. ↑ Chukwu, Ignatius (2023-10-01). "What Nigeria's independence means for Niger Delta". BusinessDay (in American English). Lagos, Nigeria. Retrieved 2025-11-21.
  11. ↑ Akpan, D. (2006). Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference.
  12. 1 2 "The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group" (in American English). Retrieved 2023-05-24.
  13. ↑ Writer, Guest (2018-05-22). "The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after". TheCable (in American English). Retrieved 2024-07-04.
  14. ↑ "Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War", The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970, Princeton University Press, 2015-12-31, pp. xv–xx, doi:10.1515/9781400871285-003, ISBN 978-1-4008-7128-5
  15. ↑ Heerten, Lasse; Moses, A. Dirk (2017-07-06), "The Nigeria-Biafra War", Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide, Routledge, pp. 3–43, doi:10.4324/9781315229294-1, ISBN 978-1-315-22929-4
  16. ↑ Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. (1991). The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-88946-235-6. OCLC 476261625.
  17. ↑ Strutton, Laine (2014). The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria (Thesis). ProQuest 1666393541.
  18. ↑ "State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta". Human Rights Watch. 1998-12-30. Archived from the original on 2012-08-05. Retrieved 2018-01-19.
  19. ↑ Ian Taylor, "China's environmental footprint in Africa" Archived 2007-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, China Dialogue, 2 February 2007.
  20. ↑ "Nigeria militants warn of oil war" Archived 2008-09-15 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 14 September 2008.
  21. ↑ Isumonah, V. Adelfemi (2013). "Armed Society in the Niger Delta". Armed Forces & Society. 39 (2): 331–358. doi:10.1177/0095327x12446925. S2CID 110566551.
  22. ↑ Pearson, Scott R. (1970). Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-8047-0749-9.
  23. ↑ Akpeninor, James Ohwofasa (2012-08-28). Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? (in English). AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4772-1868-6.
  24. ↑ Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.
  25. ↑ "A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta". ResearchGate. July 4, 2024.
  26. ↑ "Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (PDF). UNFCC. Nov 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009.
  27. ↑ Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank Archived 2012-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, "Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."
  28. ↑ "Gas Flaring in Nigeria" (PDF). Friends of the Earth. October 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009.
  29. ↑ "Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi". www.sweetcrudemovie.com. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
  30. ↑ Anejionu, Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony; Blackburn, George Alan; Whyatt, J. Duncan (4 March 2014). "Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta". International Journal of Remote Sensing (in English). 35 (5): 1900–1925. Bibcode:2014IJRS...35.1900A. doi:10.1080/01431161.2013.879351. S2CID 53705868.
  31. 1 2 3 4 Obida, Christopher B.; Blackburn, George A.; Whyatt, James D.; Semple, Kirk T. (25 June 2021). "Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone". Science of the Total Environment. 775 145854. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.775n5854O. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854. S2CID 233538622.
  32. ↑ Ugochukwu, Uzochukwu C.; Ochonogor, Alfred; Jidere, Chika M.; Agu, Chizoba; Nkoloagu, Frida; Ewoh, John; Okwu-Delunzu, Virginia U. (1 June 2018). "Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland". Environment International. 115: 38–47. Bibcode:2018EnInt.115...38U. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010. PMID 29547867. S2CID 3902367.
  33. ↑ Philibert, Danielle A.; Lyons, Danielle; Philibert, Clara; Tierney, Keith B. (10 January 2019). "Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes". Science of the Total Environment. 647: 1148–1157. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.647.1148P. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052. PMID 30180323. S2CID 52156999.
  34. ↑ Bertollini, Roberto; Teresa, Borges; Pim, deVoogt; Peter, Hoet (30 November 2018). "OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU". Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER.
  35. 1 2 3 Afshar-Mohajer, Nima; Fox, Mary A.; Koehler, Kirsten (1 March 2019). "The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant". Science of the Total Environment. 654: 924–932. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.654..924A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110. PMID 30453262. S2CID 53946118.
  36. ↑ Nriagu, Jerome; Udofia, Emilia A.; Ekong, Ibanga; Ebuk, Godwin (March 2016). "Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 13 (3): 346. doi:10.3390/ijerph13030346. PMC 4809009. PMID 27007391.
  37. ↑ United Nations (1 January 2006). "Human Development Report" (in English). United Nations.
  38. ↑ Osuagwu, Eze Simpson; Olaifa, Eseoghene (25 October 2018). "Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta". PLOS ONE (in English). 13 (10) e0205114. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1305114O. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0205114. PMC 6201865. PMID 30359365.
  39. 1 2 Aghalino, S.O. (February 2011). "Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta". Africana. 5 (1): 15. Retrieved December 14, 2023.

References

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Dem retrieve am from "https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niger_Delta&oldid=105086"