Ottoman Empire

historical country
Part of	Central Powers
Year dem found am	29 July 1299
Native label	دولت عالیه عثمانیه
Dem name after	Osman I
Position held by head of the organization	sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Official language	Ottoman Turkish
Anthem	Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire
Motto text	دولت ابد مدت
Continent	Asia, Europe, Africa
Country	Ottoman Empire
Capital	Constantinople
Coordinate location	41°0′0″N 29°0′0″E
Office held by head of state	sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Legislative body	Ottoman General Assembly
Central bank	Ottoman Bank
Diplomatic relation	Persian Empire, Ukrainian People's Republic
Currency	Akçe, kuruş, Ottoman lira, sultani
Dey share bother plus	Kingdom of Bulgaria, Austria–Hungary, Austrian Empire, Kingdom of Hungary
Dey follow	Byzantine Empire, Empire of Trebizond
Replaced by	Government of the Grand National Assembly, occupation of Smyrna, Principality of Serbia
Date dem dissolve, abolish anaa demolish	17 November 1922
Flag	flags of the Ottoman Empire
Coat of arms	coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire
History of topic	history of the Ottoman Empire
Official religion	Sunni Islam
Economy of topic	economic history of the Ottoman Empire
Demographics of topic	demographics of the Ottoman Empire

De Ottoman Empire, dem sanso call de Turkish Empire,^[1]^[2] na e be an empire wey control much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, den North Africa from de 14th to early 20th centuries; e sanso control parts of southeastern Central Europe, between de early 16th den early 18th centuries.^[3]^[4]^[5]

De empire emerge from a beylik, anaa principality, dem found insyd northwestern Anatolia insyd c. 1299 by de Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. Na ein successors conquer much of Anatolia wey dem expand into de Balkans by de mid-14th century, wey dey transform dema petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. De Ottomans end de Byzantine Empire plus de conquest of Constantinople insyd 1453 by Mehmed II. Plus ein capital at Constantinople den control over a significant portion of de Mediterranean Basin, na de Ottoman Empire be at de centre of interactions between de Middle East den Europe for six centuries. Dey rule over chaw peoples, de empire grant varying levels of autonomy to ein chaw confessional communities, anaa millets, to manage dema own affairs per Islamic law. During de reigns of Selim I den Suleiman the Magnificent insyd de 16th century, de Ottoman Empire cam be a global power.^[6]

While na dem once think de Ottoman Empire enter a period of decline after de death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus dey posit dat na de empire continue to maintain a flexible den strong economy, society den military into much of de 18th century. De Ottomans suffer military defeats insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries, wey dey culminate insyd de loss of territory. Plus rising nationalism, na a number of new states emerge insyd de Balkans. Dey follow Tanzimat reforms over de course of de 19th century, de Ottoman state cam be more powerful den organized internally. Insyd de 1876 revolution, na de Ottoman Empire attempt constitutional monarchy, before reverting to a royalist dictatorship under Abdul Hamid II, dey follow de Great Eastern Crisis.

Over de course of de late 19th century, Ottoman intellectuals dem know as Young Turks sought to liberalize den rationalize society den politics along Western lines, wey dey culminate insyd de Young Turk Revolution of 1908 wey de Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) lead, wich reestablish a constitutional monarchy. However, dey follow de disastrous Balkan Wars, de CUP cam be increasingly radicalized den nationalistic, wey lead a coup d'état insyd 1913 wey na dem establish a dictatorship.

Insyd de 19th den early 20th centuries, na persecution of Muslims during de Ottoman contraction den insyd de Russian Empire result in large-scale loss of life den mass migration into modern-day Turkey from de Balkans, Caucasus, den Crimea.^[7] Na de CUP join World War I on de side of de Central Powers. Na e struggle plus internal dissent, especially de Arab Revolt, wey dem engage insyd genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, den Greeks. Insyd de aftermath of World War I, de victorious Allied Powers occupy den partition de Ottoman Empire, wich loose ein southern territories to de United Kingdom den France. De successful Turkish War of Independence, wey Mustafa Kemal Atatürk lead against de occupying Allies, lead to de emergence of de Republic of Turkey den de abolition of de sultanate insyd 1922.

References

↑ P., E. A. (1916). "Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire". The Geographical Journal. 47 (6): 470–472. doi:10.2307/1779249. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1779249. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
↑ Baykara, Prof. Tuncer (2017). "A Study into the Concepts of Turkey and Turkistan which were used for the Ottoman State in XIXth Century". Journal of Atatürk and the History of Turkish Republic. 1: 179–190. Archived from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
↑ Ingrao, Charles; Samardžić, Nikola; Pešalj, Jovan, eds. (2011-08-12). The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718. Purdue University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12. ISBN 978-1-61249-179-0. JSTOR j.ctt6wq7kw. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
↑ Szabó, János B. (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results". The Battle for Central Europe (in English). Brill. pp. 263–275. doi:10.1163/9789004396234_013. ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
↑ Moačanin, Nenad (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia". The Battle for Central Europe (in English). Brill. pp. 277–286. doi:10.1163/9789004396234_014. ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
↑ Howard, 2016, p. 45 Somel, 2010, p. xcvii
↑
Kaser, 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former "suppressors". The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons" Fábos, 2005, p. 437: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'"
- Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s". Journal of World History. 35 (4): 579–622. doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172. Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.
Findley, 2008, pp. 16, 35 Kirişci, 2008, pp. 175–177 Karpat, 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." Karpat, 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..." Pekesen, 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51" Biondich, 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans" Armour, 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense." Bosma, Lucassen, p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this 'repatriation' – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic's population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"

Sources

Armour, Ian D. (2012). A History of Eastern Europe 1740-1918: Empires, Nations and Modernisation (2nd ed.). London New York: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-84966-661-9.
Atasoy, Nurhan; Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni (ed.). Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey. Alexandria Press. ISBN 978-0-500-97374-5.
Biondich, Mark (2011). The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence since 1878. The United States: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299058.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-929905-8.
Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06465-0. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
Bosma, Ulbe; Lucassen, Jan; Oostindie, Gert, eds. (2012). Postcolonial Migrants and Identity Politics: Europe, Russia, Japan and the United States in Comparison. International Studies in Social History. Vol. 18. Berghahn Books. doi:10.1515/9780857453280. ISBN 978-0-85745-328-0.
Freely, John (2011). A History of Ottoman Architecture. WIT Press. ISBN 978-1-84564-506-9. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
Gibney, Matthew J.; Hansen, Randall, eds. (2005). Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576077962.
Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-4408-3466-0.
Itzkowitz, Norman (1980). Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. ISBN 978-0-226-38806-9.
Karpat, K.H. (2001). The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Studies in Middle Eastern history. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513618-0.
Karpat, Kemal H. (2004). Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays. Leiden Boston: BRILL. ISBN 978-9004133228.
Kasaba, Reşat, ed. (2008). The Cambridge History of Turkey. Vol. 4: Turkey in the Modern World. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521620963. ISBN 978-1-139-05421-8.
Kaser, Karl (2011). The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History. Berlin Wien: LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5.
Kinross, Lord (1979). The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-688-08093-8. popular history espouses old "decline" thesis
Kuban, Doğan (2010). Ottoman Architecture. Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club. ISBN 978-1-85149-604-4.
Pekesen, Berna (7 March 2012). "Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans". European History Online. Leibniz Institute of European History. Archived from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
Quataert, Donald (1983). Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908.
Quataert, Donald; Spivey, Diane M. (2000). Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4431-3.
Rogan, Eugene (2011). The Arabs: A History. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-465-03248-8. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
Rüstem, Ünver (2019). Ottoman Baroque: The Architectural Refashioning of Eighteenth-Century Istanbul. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691181875.
Somel, S.A. (2010). The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire. The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-1-4617-3176-4.

Read further

Library resources about
Ottoman Empire

General surveys

The Cambridge History of Turkey online Archived 5 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
- Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
- Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (2008)
Faroqhi, Suraiya. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History (2009) 196pp
Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8.
Howard, Douglas A. (2017). A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-72730-3.
Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-57451-9.
İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert, eds. (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3. Two volumes.
Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017)
McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. (1997) The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923 online
Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." Renaissance Quarterly (2017) 70#1: 220–234 online
Somel, Selcuk Aksin. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire (2003). pp. 399 excerpt Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine
Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453 (1968; new preface 1999) online
Tabak, Faruk. The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach (2008)

Early Ottomans

Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. U California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7.
Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana UP. ISBN 978-0-933070-12-7.
Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5636-1.

Diplomatic den military

Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". Journal of World History. 25: 85–124. doi:10.1353/jwh.2014.0005. S2CID 143042353.
Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." Journal of Early Modern History 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; online
Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000 ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)online.
Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." International History Review 24.2 (2002): 253–277 online.
Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27.2 (2007): 259–272 online.
Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." War in History 5.1 (1998): 23–36 online.
Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online free to borrow
Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." International Review of Turkish Studies 1.3 (2011): 8–30. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
Fahmy, Khaled. All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge University Press. 1997)
Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." Middle East Journal 15.2 (1961): 141–152. online Archived 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
Merriman, Roger Bigelow. Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 (Harvard University Press, 1944) online
Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
Minawi, Mustafa. The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (2016) online
Nicolle, David. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774 (Osprey Publishing, 1983)
Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).
Rhoads, Murphey (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-389-1.
Soucek, Svat (2015). Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press. ISBN 978-975-428-554-3.
Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. Abc-Clio. ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0.

Specialty studies

Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)
Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008) ISBN 978-0-521-71533-1
Davison, Roderic H. Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (New York: Gordian Press, 1973)
Deringil, Selim. The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London: IB Tauris, 1998)
Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1980)
Hamed-Troyansky, Vladimir (2024). Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-3696-5. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
McMeekin, Sean. The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power (2010)
Mikhail, Alan. God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World (2020) ISBN 978-1-63149-239-6 on Selim I (1470–1529)
Pamuk, Sevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire (1999). pp. 276
Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 ISBN 0-297-84913-1.
Yaycioglu, Ali. Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review: doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716 Cakir, Burcin (2018). "Ali Yacıoğlu: "Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions" | Middle East – Topics & Arguments". Middle East – Topics & Arguments. 10: 109–112. doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716. Archived from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2022..

Historiography

Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. online Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." International Journal of Middle East Studies 25.1 (1993): 53–69 online.
Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." International Journal of Turkish Studies 14.1/2 (2008).
Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." Journal of the American Oriental Society, 138#2 (2018), p. 369+. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) online Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1#1 (2014), pp. 23–35 doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 Eissenstat (2014). "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies". Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association. 1 (1–2): 23–35. doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. JSTOR 10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. S2CID 158272381. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
Kayalı, Hasan (December 2017). "The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends". The Journal of Modern History (in English). 89 (4): 875–907. doi:10.1086/694391. ISSN 0022-2801. S2CID 148953435.
Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. excerpt Archived 19 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," Comparative Studies in Society & History (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation
Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 892–896. ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
Quataert, Donald. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" History Compass 1 (2003): 1–9.
Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 7.1 (2020): 70–73 online.
Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." Austrian History Yearbook 48 (2017): 173–190. Online

External links

Ottoman Text Archive Project Archived 19 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine
Ottoman and Turkish Studies Resources – University of Michigan
Historians of the Ottoman Empire – University of Chicago
Turkey in Asia, 1920

[1] P., E. A. (1916). "Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire". The Geographical Journal. 47 (6): 470–472. doi:10.2307/1779249. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1779249. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.

[2] Baykara, Prof. Tuncer (2017). "A Study into the Concepts of Turkey and Turkistan which were used for the Ottoman State in XIXth Century". Journal of Atatürk and the History of Turkish Republic. 1: 179–190. Archived from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 26 March 2024.

[3] Ingrao, Charles; Samardžić, Nikola; Pešalj, Jovan, eds. (2011-08-12). The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718. Purdue University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12. ISBN 978-1-61249-179-0. JSTOR j.ctt6wq7kw. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2023.

[4] Szabó, János B. (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results". The Battle for Central Europe (in English). Brill. pp. 263–275. doi:10.1163/9789004396234_013. ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4. Retrieved 2023-12-19.

[5] Moačanin, Nenad (2019). "The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia". The Battle for Central Europe (in English). Brill. pp. 277–286. doi:10.1163/9789004396234_014. ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 2023-12-19.

[6] Howard, 2016, p. 45 Somel, 2010, p. xcvii

[7] Kaser, 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former "suppressors". The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons" Fábos, 2005, p. 437: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'"
Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s". Journal of World History. 35 (4): 579–622. doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172. Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.
Findley, 2008, pp. 16, 35 Kirişci, 2008, pp. 175–177 Karpat, 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." Karpat, 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..." Pekesen, 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51" Biondich, 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans" Armour, 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense." Bosma, Lucassen, p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this 'repatriation' – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic's population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"

[mwnA] Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s". Journal of World History. 35 (4): 579–622. doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172. Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.

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