Scramble for Africa

Scramble for Africa

colonialism

Subclass of	colonisation of Africa
Facet give	colonization, colonisation of Africa
Tym dem start	1885
End tym	1914
Contributing factor of	World War I

Areas of Africa wey Western European colonial empires control insyd 1913, plus current national boundaries superimposed

  Belgium

  France

  Germany

  Italy

  Portugal

  Spain

  United Kingdom

  Independent

Na de Scramble for Africa be de invasion, conquest, den colonisation of chaw of Africa by seven Western European powers wey be driven by de Second Industrial Revolution during de late 19th century den early 20th century insyd de era of "New Imperialism": Belgium, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Portugal den Spain.

Insys 1870, na 10% of de continent be formally under European control. By 1914, na dis figure rise to almost 90%; na de only states wey dey retain sovereignty be Liberia, Ethiopia, Egba, Aussa, Senusiyya, Mbunda, de Dervish State, de Darfur Sultanate, den de Ovambo kingdoms, chaw of wich dem later be conquered.

Na de 1884 Berlin Conference regulate European colonisation den trade insyd Africa, wey e be seen as emblematic of de "scramble". Insyd de last quarter of de 19th century, na der be considerable political rivalries between de European empires, wich provide de impetus for de colonisation. Na de later years of de 19th century see a transition from "informal imperialism" – military influence den economic dominance – to direct rule.

Plus de decline of de European colonial empires insyd de wake of de two world wars, na chaw African colonies gain independence during de Cold War, wey na dem decide make dem keep dema colonial borders insyd de Organisation of African Unity conference of 1964 secof fears of civil wars den regional instability, wey dey place emphasis on pan-Africanism.

Background

By 1841, na businessmen wey komot Europe establish small trading posts along de coasts of Africa, buh na dem seldom move inland, dem dey prefer make dem stay near de sea. Na dem primarily trade plus locals. Na large parts of de continent be essentially uninhabitable give Europeans secof dema high mortality rates from tropical diseases such as malaria. Insyd de middle of de 19th century, na European explorers map much of East Africa den Central Africa.

As late as de 1870s, na Europeans control approximately 10% of de African continent, plus all dema territories dey locate near de coasts. Na de most important holdings be Angola den Mozambique, wey na Portugal hold; de Cape Colony, wey de United Kingdom hold; den Algeria, wey France hold. By 1914, na Ethiopia den Liberia per remain outsyd European control, plus na Italy eventually occupy de former insyd 1936 while na de latter get strong connections plus ein historical colonizer, de United States.

Na technological advances facilitate European expansion overseas. Na industrialization bring about rapid advancements insyd transportation den communication, especially insyd de forms of steamships, railways den telegraphs. Na medical advances sanso play an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases, wich na e help control dema adverse effects. Na de development of quinine, an effective treatment give malaria, make vast expanses of de tropics more accessible give Europeans.

Causes

Africa den global markets

Sub-Saharan Africa, one of de last regions of de world largely untouched by "informal imperialism", na e be attractive to business entrepreneurs. During a time wen na Britain ein balance of trade show a growing deficit, plus shrinking den increasingly protectionist continental markets during de Long Depression (1873–1896), na Africa offer Britain, Germany, France, den oda countries an open market wey go garner dem a trade surplus: a market wey buy more from de colonial power dan e sell overall.

E be like say extra money dey make better profit if dem put am abroad, wey cheap materials, small competition, and plenty raw materials go fit give better value. Anoda reason wey imperialism dey shine na di yawa for raw materials like ivory, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin. Plus, Britain wan control some areas for di southern and eastern coasts of Africa to get stopover ports wey go help dem reach Asia and dem empire for India. But, if you no count the place wey turn Union of South Africa for 1910, European countries no really pour plenty money for Africa.

Pro-imperialist colonial people like Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry dey talk say if dem fit use Africa market, e go solve the wahala of low prices and too much production wey dey happen for dem small continental markets.John A. Hobson talk for him book Imperialism say this small small market for continent na one big reason wey cause the global 'New Imperialism' time. William Easterly, but he no gree say capitalism dey do imperialism matter. E dey talk say colonialism no be for corporate wahala but for government development. E don talk say "imperialism no dey clear like that with capitalism and free markets... if we check history, e get beta link between colonialism/imperialism and government-led development."

Strategic rivalry

Contemporary French propaganda poster wey dey hail Major Marchand ein trek across Africa toward Fashoda insyd 1898

While na tropical Africa no be a large zone of investment, na oda overseas regions be. Na de vast interior between Egypt den de gold den diamond-rich Southern Africa get strategic value in securing de flow of overseas trade. Na Britain be under political pressure make dem build up lucrative markets insyd India, Malaya, Australia den New Zealand. Thus, na e want make e secure de key waterway between East den West – de Suez Canal, na dem plete insyd 1869. However, na a theory dat na Britain sought make e annex East Africa during 1880 dey go , out of geo-strategic concerns connect to Egypt (especially de Suez Canal), na e be challenged by historians such as John Darwin (1997) den Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).

Dem dey scramble for Africa land because dem wan get military and naval bases, for strategy matter and to show power. As dem dey build bigger navy and new steam ships, dem need coaling stations and ports to take care of dem. We di need defence bases to guard sea routes and communication lines, especially for those pricey international waters like Suez Canal wey dey important.

Dem dey see colonies like big assets for power play wey dem fit use for negotiation; e be good exchange when dem dey do international deal. Colonies wey get plenty local people too be strong military power; Britain and France dey chop plenty British Indian and North African soldiers for their colonial wars (and dem go still use am again for the World Wars wey dey come). For di time wey nationalism dey reign, e dey pressure make nation get empire as status symbol; di whole idea of 'greatness' come join hand with di 'White Man's Burden', dat sense of duty wey plenty nations dey use for dia strategies.

For early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza dey explore area for Congo River for France, as Henry Morton Stanley dey check am on top Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo, wey Leopold II of Belgium dey support, wey go turn am to im own Congo Free State. Leopold bin dey plan to carry Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza join am, but e change hin mind go for Henry Morton Stanley wen di first guy don join French government. France don take over Tunisia for May 1881, wey fit make Italy join di German-Austrian Dual Alliance for 1882, come form di Triple Alliance. Dat same year, Britain enter Egypt (wey be like dem dey manage am small, but na Ottoman Empire dey control am), wey dem dey rule Sudan and some part of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. For 1884, Germany come talk say Togoland, Cameroons and South West Africa be under dem protection; then France take Guinea for dem own. French West Africa start for 1895 and French Equatorial Africa come up for 1910. For French Somaliland, Russian colony wey no last long for Egyptian fort of Sagallo, Terek Cossacks carry am come declare am for 1889.

David Livingstone, early explorer of de interior of Africa den fighter against de slave trade

Germany's Weltpolitik

De Askari colonial troops insyd German East Africa, c. 1906

Germany, dem divide into small states, na e no initially be a colonial power. Insyd 1862, na Otto von Bismarck cam turn Minister-Presido of de Kingdom of Prussia, den thru a series of wars plus both Austria insyd 1866 den France insyd 1870 na e be able make e unify all of Germany under Prussian rule. Na de German Empire be formally proclaimed on 18 January 1871. At first, na Bismarck dislike colonies buh give in to popular den elite pressure insyd de 1880s. Na he sponsor de 1884–85 Berlin Conference, wich set de rules of effective control of African territories den reduce de risk of conflict between colonial powers. Na Bismarck use private companies make he set up small colonial operations insyd Africa den de Pacific.

Pan-Germanism don link am with di young nation wey dey find im imperialist wahala. For di early 1880s, dem form Deutscher Kolonialverein, and dem dey publish Kolonialzeitung. Dis colonial lobby still dey push through di nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Weltpolitik na di foreign policy wey Kaiser Wilhelm II take in 1890, wey wan turn Germany to global power through strong diplomacy and build big navy. Germany dey be third-biggest colonial power for Africa, where dem get plenty land, 2.6 million square kilometres of colonial territory and 14 million people wey dem dey rule inside 1914. Di African places dem get na Southwest Africa, Togoland, Cameroons, and Tanganyika. For 1905, Germany dey try make France dey solo with the First Moroccan Crisis. Dis one lead to di 1905 Algeciras Conference, wey France go fit control Morocco but dem go balance am with some other territories, then e follow come be di Agadir Crisis for 1911.

Italy ein expansion

An Italian Carabiniere den a Libyan colonial Zaptié wey dey patrol insyd Tripoli, Italian Tripolitania, 1914

After fighting alongside France during de Crimean War (1853–1856), na de Kingdom of Sardinia sought make e unify de Italian peninsula, plus French support. Dey follow a war plus Austria insyd 1859, na Sardinia, under de leadership of Victor Emmanuel II den Giuseppe Garibaldi, be able make dem unify chaw of de peninsula by 1861, wey na dem establish de Kingdom of Italy.

After dem join together, Italy want increase dem land make dem be big power, so dem take some part of Eritrea for 1870. and 1882. For 1889–90, dem dey occupy land for south side of Horn of Africa, wey go become Italian Somaliland. After dem scatter wey Emperor Yohannes IV die for 1889, General Oreste Baratieri carry dier soldiers go take over Ethiopian Highlands for Eritrean coast. Italy come announce say dem don open new colony wey dem call Eritrea, and dem shift di capital from Massawa go Asmara. When Italy and Ethiopia no dey gree again, di First Italo-Ethiopian War start for 1895; Italian soldiers no fit win because Ethiopians get plenty people, dem sabi organize well, plus dem get support from Russia and France. For 1911, Italy dey fight war with Ottoman Empire, wey dem carry Tripolitania and Cyrenaica come together, wey dem call am Italian Libya. For 1919, Enrico Corradini bring out Proletarian Nationalism idea, wey suppose make Italy's imperialism note legit by mix of socialism and nationalism:

We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject...to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.

Di Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935–1936), wey di fascist dictator Benito Mussolini carry come, na di last colonial war (dat one wey dem wan colonize place, no be war wey dey free nation). Ethiopia wey dem dey occupy—na di last independent African land wey dey stand, apart from Liberia. Di fascist Italian army come take over Ethiopian during World War II as part of Italian East Africa, but plenty of di mountain areas still dey free from Italian control because of di wahala wey di Arbegnoch people dey give dem. Dis occupation na example of di expansion policy wey dey show how di Axis powers dey be, different from di Scramble for Africa.

History den characteristics

Colonization before World War I

Congo

Henry Morton Stanley

Na David Livingstone ein explorations, carry on by Henry Morton Stanley, excite imaginations plus Stanley ein grandiose ideas for colonisation; buh na dese found little support dey owe to de problems den scale of action required, except from Leopold II of Belgium, wey na insyd 1876 organise de International African Association. From 1869 to 1874, na Leopold II secretly send Stanley to de Congo region, wer na he make treaties plis chaw African chiefs along de Congo River den by 1882 na e get sufficient territory to form de basis of de Congo Free State.

Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza insyd ein version of de "native" dress, wey Félix Nadar photograph

While na Stanley dey explore de Congo on behalf of Leopold II of Belgium, de Franco-Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travel into de western Congo Basin wey na he raise de French flag over de newly founded Brazzaville insyd 1881, thus dey occupy today ein Republic of the Congo. Portugal, wich sanso claim de area secof old treaties plus de Kingdom of Kongo, make a treaty plus Britain on 26 February 1884 make e block off Leopold ein access to de Atlantic.

By 1890 di Congo Free State don gather control for e territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville, dem dey plan to push south down di Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At di same time, di British South Africa Company wey Cecil Rhodes dey run, dey expand go north from di Limpopo River, dem dey send Pioneer Column (with Frederick Selous lead am) go Matabeleland, come start colony for Mashonaland

Tippu Tip, wey be Zanzibari Arab for Zanzibar, e dey play big role as 'protector' for European explorers dem. ivory trader and slave trader. E don build trading empire for Zanzibar and nearby places for East Africa, Tippu Tip go change him side to join the rising colonial big men for di area and when Henry Morton Stanley talk am, Tippu Tip become governor for di 'Stanley Falls District' (Boyoma Falls) for Leopold own Congo Free State, before dem join Congo–Arab War against Leopold II colonial wahala.

For west side, di place wey dem expansion go meet, na Katanga, di site wey Yeke Kingdom of Msiri dey. Msiri be di baddest ruler for di area wey get plenty soldiers, e dey trade big amounts of copper, ivory, and slaves—and dem dey hear rumor say gold dey. Di rush for Katanga na one big example for dat time. Rhodes send two trips go Msiri for 1890, led by Alfred Sharpe wey dem no gree, and Joseph Thomson wey no fit land for Katanga. Leopold send four missions. First, Le Marinel mission only fit collect some letter wey no too clear. Delcommune mission get block. The well-armed Stairs mission get order to take Katanga, whether Msiri like am or not. Msiri no gree, dem shoot am, and dem chop im head come put for pole to teach people lesson wey dey bad. Bia River expedition don finish work wey be like say dem don set up some kind admin and police for Katanga. So, di half million square kilometres wey Katanga be, e enter Leopold hand and make him African kingdom reach 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), wey be about 75 times bigger pass Belgium. Di Congo Free State carry serious wahala come for di people wey dem colonize, including mass killings and forced labour, wey make Belgium,Dem dey feel pressure from Congo Reform Association wey make dem stop Leopold II rule and take am join Belgium as colony on 20 August 1908, wey dem sabi as Belgian Congo.

From 1885 to 1908, many atrocities were perpetrated in the Congo Free State; in these images, Native Congo Free State labourers who failed to meet rubber collection quotas have been punished by having their hands cut off.

Di wickedness wey King Leopold II show for im former colony, di Congo Free State, e plenty for story; between 1885 and 1908, around 8 million people wey dey live for there die out of di 16 million. Roger Casement, one Irish diplomat wey dey around dat time, talk say di people wey die get four main reasons: “random wahala”, hunger, less pikin wey dey born and sickness. Di sleeping sickness scatter beta for di place and e also contribute to di sharp drop for di population; Dem don estimate say sleeping sickness and smallpox don kill almost half of di people wey dey around lower Congo River. Dem figure for how many people wey die dey change well well. As di first census no happen until 1924, e no easy to sabi how many people wey loss during dat time. The Casement Report talk say e be three million. William Rubinstein talk say: "E dey clear say di population figures wey Hochschild give no correct at all." E no go get any way wey we fit find out di population for Congo before di twentieth century, and dem estimates like 20 million na just wahala guess. Most part of di inside Congo dey like no one don check am, e be like sey e hard to reach.

Same tin happen for dem French Congo wey dey close by, where plenty resource dem dey chop run by concession companies. Dem brutal ways plus di sickness wey dem bring come make up to 50% of di local people waka go according to Hochschild. French government put committee wey de Brazza dey lead for 1905 make dem check the talk wey dey go about abuse for the colony. But e no survive come back, him die for the return journey, and him report wey dey hot like fire, e no come do anything nor make am reach public eye.. For 1920s, roughly 20,000 people wey dem force waka die as dem dey build railway for French land.

Egypt, Sudan, den South Sudan

Suez Canal

Port Said entrance to Suez Canal, wey dey show De Lesseps ein statue

Make dem construct de Suez Canal, na French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps obtain chaw concessions from Isma'il Pasha, de Khedive of Egypt den Sudan insyd 1854–56. Sam sources estimate de workforce at 30,000, buh na odas estimate dat 120,000 workers die over de ten years of construction from malnutrition, fatigue, den disease, especially cholera. Shortly before ein completion insyd 1869, na Khedive Isma'il borrow enormous sums from British den French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, na he dey face financial difficulties wey na dem force am make he sell ein block of shares insyd de Suez Canal. Na de shares be snapped up by Britain, under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, wey na he sought make he give ein country practical control insyd de management of dis strategic waterway. Wen na Isma'il repudiate Egypt ein foreign debt insyd 1879, Britain den France seize joint financial control over de country, dey force de Egyptian ruler make he abdicate den install ein eldest son Tewfik Pasha insyd ein place. Na de Egyptian de Sudanese ruling classes no relish foreign intervention.

Mahdist War

During de 1870s, na European initiatives against de slave trade cause an economic crisis insyd northern Sudan, wey dey precipitate de rise of Mahdist forces. Insyd 1881, na de Mahdist revolt erupt insyd Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, wey dey severe Tewfik ein authority insyd Sudan. De same year, na Tewfik suffer an even more perilous rebellion by ein Egyptian army insyd de form of de Urabi revolt. Insyd 1882, na Tewfik appeal for direct British military assistance, wey commence Britain ein administration of Egypt. Na a joint British-Egyptian military force enter de Mahdist War. Additionally na de Egyptian province of Equatoria (wey locate insyd South Sudan) wey Emin Pasha lead na e sanso be subject to an ostensible relief expedition of Emin Pasha against Mahdist forces. Na de British-Egyptian force ultimately defeat de Mahdist forces insyd Sudan insyd 1898. Thereafter, na Britain seize effective control of Sudan, wich na dem nominally call Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

Otto von Bismarck at de Berlin Conference, 1884

Na dr occupation of Egypt den de acquisition of de Congo be de first major moves insyd hat cam be a precipitous scramble for African territory. Insyd 1884, na Otto von Bismarck convene de 1884–1885 Berlin Conference make dem discuss de African problem. As dem dey talk diplomacy to end di small small slave trade wey remain plus di missionary work wey dey go on, Di main wahala wey people wey dey present dey face na how to stop war wey fit burst between di European countries as dem dey share di continent for demself. More matter, di diplomats for Berlin show di rules wey di big powers go follow for dem search for colonies. Dem also gree say the place wey dey near Congo River go be run by Leopold II as neutral area, wey trade and waka no go get wahala. Berlin Conference change how dem colonize Africa, from jom jom economic wahala to serious political control wetin dem dey call 'effective occupation' principle. No country fit just claim Africa without tell other powers wetin dem wan do. No land fit be claimed till e don really dey occupied. But dem wey dey compete no mind rules when e dey sweet, and plenty times dem almost start war (see Fashoda Incident). Di Swahili coast wey dey under di Sultanate of Zanzibar, Germany and Britain chop am, but Zanzibar dey independent till 1890 sha, when dem turn that small part of Sultanate to British protectorate with Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty.

Britain ein administration of Egypt den South Africa

Boer child in a British concentration camp during the Second Boer War (1899–1902)

Britain dey run Egypt and Cape Colony wey make dem dey worry how to hold the source of Nile River. Dem take Egypt for 1882, and Ottoman Empire just dey follow till 1914, when London turn am to protectorate. Egypt no be real British colony. Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda dem conquer am for 1890s and early 20th century; and for south, Cape Colony (wey dem collect for 1795) be base for how dem dey subjugate di African states wey dey near and di Dutch Afrikaner wey commot from Cape to run away from British and come start their own republics. Theophilus Shepstone take join South African Republic to British Empire for 1877, after dem don dey independent for 20 years. For 1879, after di Anglo-Zulu War, Britain come dey show say dem get power for South Africa territories. Di Boers no gree, and for December 1880 dem revolt, wey cause di First Boer War happen. UK Prime Minister William Gladstone sign peace contract for 23 March 1881, give Boers self-rule for Transvaal be dat. The Jameson Raid wey happen for 1895 no work as e be planned. Na British South Africa Company and Johannesburg Reform Committee wan use am chop Boer government for Transvaal. Di Second Boer War wey happen between 1899 and 1902, na about who go control di gold and diamond biz; di independent Boer republics of Orange Free State and South African Republic dem lose dis time and dem join di British Empire.

The French people don push inside Africa from the coast for West Africa (wen we dey call Senegal now) go east, waka through the Sahel wey dey along the southern side of Sahara. Dem dem goal be say make dem get smooth colonial empire wey go stretch from Niger River reach Nile, so dem go dey control all trade wey dey come and go from Sahel side, thanks to wetin dem don already control for the caravan routes wey pass through Sahara. The British dem, dey wan connect their things for Southern Africa make e join their own for East Africa plus dem two areas go fit touch Nile basin.

Muhammad Ahmad, leader of the Mahdists. This fundamentalist group of Muslim dervishes overran much of Sudan and fought British forces.

Sudan (wey carry plenty of wetin we dey call Uganda today) be di key to make all dis dreams happen, especially as Egypt don dey under British control already. Dis “red line” for Africa na wetin make Cecil Rhodes sabi well well. Together with Lord Milner, di British colonial minister for South Africa, Rhodes dey push for dis “Cape to Cairo” empire, wey go connect Suez Canal to di rich mineral area for South Africa by rail. Even though Germany dey occupy Tanganyika till World War I finish, Rhodes still push well for dat big African empire.

Britain wan carry im East African empire stretch from Cairo go Cape of Good Hope, as France dey try to push im territory from Dakar reach Sudan, make im empire fit cover whole continent from Atlantic Ocean to Red Sea. If you draw line from Cape Town go Cairo (na Rhodes dream), and another line from Dakar go Horn of Africa (na French ambition), dem two lines go meet for eastern Sudan near Fashoda, that be why e dey important strategically.

French soldiers wey dey led by Jean-Baptiste Marchand land first for di important fort wey dey Fashoda, sharp-sharp after, British soldiers wey Lord Kitchener dey lead come follow, him be di commander-in-chief for British Army since 1892. Di French people waka come out after dem face off, but dem still dey push dia claims for oda posts for di area. Di Fashoda wahala later bring di Entente Cordiale wey dem sign for 1904, wey go make peace between dem two.

Anglo-French Agreement

For 1890, United Kingdom and France fit settle their wahala wey dey spoil trade matter, make British Empire sabi free trade, while France go fit spread dem power for North Africa. As France gree say dem go sabi Britain dey protect Zanzibar, British Empire na im gree say France fit claim Madagascar plus dem influence for North Africa wey reach Sokoto border side. But e no easy to sharp-sharp demarcate dis border without big map wahala.

Moroccan Crises

Main articles: First Moroccan Crisis and Agadir Crisis

Map depicting the staged pacification of Morocco through to 1934

Even though Berlin Conference don set rule for Scramble for Africa, e no shake the rival imperialists. Because of Entente Cordiale, German Kaiser decide say make e test how strong e influence be, using Morocco wey dem dey fight over as battlefield. Kaiser Wilhelm II waka go Tangier for 31 March 1905, e come talk say Morocco fit be independent, e wan push back French wahala for Morocco. Britain and Spain don confirm say France dey there for 1904. The Kaiser's talk gree French nationalism better, and with Britain back dem, the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, stand strong gidigba. Di wahala come sabi for mid-June 1905 when dem force Delcassé comot from di ministry by di premier wey dey reason more for peace, Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905, Germany dey face isolation, and di French gree for conference to settle di wahala.

The Moroccan Sultan Abdelhafid, who led the resistance to French expansionism during the Agadir Crisis

Di 1906 Algeciras Conference na dem call am to solve di wahala. Among di thirteen countries wey dey there, na only Austria-Hungary dey support Germany, but dem no even sabi Africa well. France get plenty backing from Britain, U.S., Russia, Italy, plus Spain. Germans gree finally for deal wey dem sign for 31 May 1906, wey France gree make some changes for Morocco but still hold big areas. But just five years later, wahala come for Morocco again (we dey call am Agadir Crisis) when dem send German gunboat wey dem dey call Panther go Agadir port for July 1911. Germany don begin try catch up with Britain for navy matter—di British navy get policy say dem go always dey bigger than di next two enemy fleets for di world combined. When di British hear say Panther don land for Morocco, dem mistakenly believe say di Germans wan turn Agadir into one naval base for di Atlantic. Di German move be for boost claim for compensation because dem accept say France dey run di North African kingdom, wey France been dey rule since 1906 Algeciras Conference. For November 1911, dem settle matter wey Germany gree France for Morocco, make France give dem small land for di French Equatorial colony wey dem dey call Middle Congo.

France and Spain come together wey dem set full protectorate over Morocco for 30 March 1912, e no let di place get im proper independence again. Plus, as Britain dey support France during di Moroccan wahala, e make di Entente between dem strong, and e sabi say e dey scatter di relationship wey go eventually lead to di First World War.

Dervish resistance

See also: Somaliland campaign and Fifth Expedition (Somaliland)

Dervish Movement (Somali: Dhaqdhaqaaqa Daraawiish) na armed resistance movement wey happen between 1899 and 1920, wey Muslim poet and tough leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan dey lead, dem dey call am Sayyid Mohamed ,dem sabi am as Sayyid Mohamed, wey talk say make dem free dem from British and Italian wey dey colonize and make dem finish Ethiopians. Dervish movement carry about 25,000 youths from different clans between 1899 and 1905, dem get guns come attack Ethiopian soldiers for Jigjiga, wey dem run and scatter dem. Na dat be dem first military win. Dervish movement come talk say di colonial government for British Somaliland be dem enemy.

Di British people start to di Punitive wahala against Dervish stronghold for 1904.Dervish dem dey face wahala for battlefield, dem gather small small units come start guerrilla fight.

For 1908, the Dervishes don enter British Somaliland again and start dey give British big wahala for the inside areas of Horn of Africa. Since 1908, after World War I don start, the British dey retreat go small coastal areas as dem dey suffer bad losses for di interior. Dervish still dey carry their matter on top, leaving di interior for di Dervishes to handle. During 1905-1910, the Dervishes continued raids against the remaining british who were defeated in the battle of Dul Madooba.

Dervish movement come create one kind mobile independent Somali 'proto-state' for early 20th century wey boundary dey change and people dey waka up and down. E be one of di bloodiest and longest wahala movements for sub-Saharan Africa for di colonial time, wey e dey happen as World War I dey go on. Di wahala wetin dey happen between different sides for almost twenty years don kill almost one third of Somaliland people and spoil di local economy well well.

Portrait of Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan of the Dervish State.

After Berlin Conference, British, Italians, and Ethiopians dey find land wey Somalis dey stay inside. Dervish movement wey Sayid Muhammed Abdullah Hassan dey lead, e dey exist for 21 years, from 1899 to 1920. Dervish movement fit push British Empire back four times and make dem retreat go coastal area. Because of di successful waka, di Dervish movement don get recognition as ally from di Ottoman and German empires. Di Turks don name Hassan Emir for di Somali nation, and di Germans promise to officially recognize any land wey di Dervishes go fit collect.

After dem don manage British for plenty years, when First World War finish, Dervish friends wey be Ottoman and German empire don lose. After World War I finish, British eyes turn to Dervishes, no be small. For 1920, di British people carry big attack go Taleh forts, na di place wey Dervish movement dey strong. Dervishes finally lose for 1920 when Britain use plane chop dem down.

Herero Wars and the Maji Maji Rebellion

Main articles: Herero Wars and Maji Maji Rebellion

See also: Herero and Nama genocide

Lieutenant von Durling with prisoners at Shark Island, one of the German concentration camps used during the Herero and Nama genocide

From 1904 to 1908, Germany dey face problem for e colonies wey dey for German South West Africa and German East Africa as native people dey revolt against dem. For both places, as reinforcements from Germany land, German rule just dey solid. Herero people for South West Africa get gbege for Waterberg battle while Maji-Maji people for East Africa dey suffer as German soldiers dey push dem small-small for countryside, native folks dey do guerrilla warfare to fight back.

Di Germans try clear di bush wey get civilians for dia South West Africa lead to wahala wey be genocide for di people. E be total of 65,000 Herero (80% of dem Herero people), and 10,000 Nama (50% of di Nama people) wey either starve, die from thirst, or work till dem dead for camps like Shark Island concentration camp from 1904 to 1908. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros, 10,000 Nama, and plenty San wey we no fit talk how many die for that genocide. Dis genocide wey happen, people dey die from hunger, thirst, and dem fit poison water wey dey for dem wells, as dem dey stuck for Namib Desert.

Philosophy

Colonial consciousness den exhibitions

Colonial lobby

Pygmies den a European. Na dem go expose sam pygmies insyd human zoos, such as Ota Benga display by eugenicist Madison Grant insyd de Bronx Zoo.

Insyd ein earlier stages, na imperialism be generally de act of individual explorers as well as sam adventurous merchantmen. Na de colonial powers be a long way from approving widout any dissent de expensive adventures carry out abroad. Na various important political leaders, such as William Gladstone, oppose colonization insyd ein first years. However, during ein second premiership between 1880 den 1885, na he no fi resist de colonial lobby insyd ein cabinet den thus na he no execute ein electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although na Gladstone be personally opposed to imperialism, de social tensions wey be caused by de Long Depression push am make he favour jingoism: na de imperialists cam be de "parasites of patriotism." Insyd France, na Radical politician Georges Clemenceau be adamantly oppose to am: na he think colonization be a diversion from de "blue line of de Vosges" mountains, dat be revanchism den de patriotic urge make dem reclaim de Alsace-Lorraine region wich na e be annexed by de German Empire plus de 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Na Clemenceau make Jules Ferry ein cabinet fall after de 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt insyd The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), na dis expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradict de unity of de nation state wich na provide citizenship to ein population. Thus, a tension between de universalist go respect human rights of de colonized people, as dem fi be considered as "citizens" of de nation-state, wey na de imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deem inferior begin dey surface. Sam, insyd colonizing countries, oppose wat dem see as unnecessary evils of de colonial administration wen left to einself; as dem describe insyd Joseph Conrad ein Heart of Darkness (1899)—dem publish around de same time as Kipling ein The White Man's Burden—anaa insyd Louis-Ferdinand Céline ein Journey to the End of the Night (1932).

Colonial propaganda and jingoism

Plenty colonialist propaganda pamphlets, ideas, and pictures dey play for the colonial masters’ mind for their jingoistic and proud nationalism.One big thing wey French dem do for late 19th century and early 20th century be di civilizing mission (mission civilisatrice), dem belief sey na Europe duty to bring civilization come for people wey dem no sabi better life.So, colonial people dey do policy wey dem call Franco-Europeanisation for French colonies, especially for French West Africa and Madagascar. For 19th century, dem gree French citizenship and make dem fit choose person wey go represent dem for French Chamber of Deputies for di four old colonies like Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyane and Réunion, plus di people wey dey for di 'Four Communes' for Senegal. Most time, de people wey dem choose na white French guys, but e get some black guys too, like di Senegalese Blaise Diagne, wey dem elect for 1914.

Colonial exhibitions

Poster for de 1906 Colonial Exhibition insyd Marseille (France)

By de end of World War I na de colonial empires cam be very popular almost everywer insyd Europe: na dem convince public opinion of de needs of a colonial empire, although na chaw of de metropolitans never go see a piece of am. Na colonial exhibitions be instrumental insyd dis change of popular mentalities wey bring about by de colonial propaganda, wey be supported by de colonial lobby den by various scientists. Thus, na conquests of territories be inevitably wey be followed by public displays of de indigenous people for scientific den leisure purposes.

Poster for de 1897 Brussels International Exposition

Carl Hagenbeck, wey be German guy wey dey sell wild animals and go later run plenty zoos for Europe, decide for 1874 say him go show Samoa and Sami people like dem be 'purely natural' people.For 1876, e send one of im boys go di new land wey dem don conquer, Egyptian Sudan, make dem bring some wild animals and Nubians come back. Dem showcase for Paris, London, and Berlin, this Nubian crew really burst river, e be big success. Dis level human zoo dey for places like Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York, Paris and plenty more, wey 200,000 to 300,000 people dey show face for each exhibition. Dem showcase Tuaregs after France take over Timbuktu (wen René Caillié go there as Muslim for 1828, and him win di prize wey French Société de Géographie don offer); Malagasy wey dem occupy Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin lose to the French for 1894. Dem no fit handle the weather, some locals waka go die from exposure, like some Galibis wey dey Paris for 1892.

Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, wey dey run the Jardin d'Acclimatation, decide for 1877 say e go organize two 'ethnological shows', wey go show Nubians and Inuit. Ticket sales for Jardin d'Acclimatation don double, dem get one million people wey pay to enter that year, e be big success for this time. From 1877 wey reach 1912, around thirty 'ethnological exhibitions' dey happen for the zoo.Dem call am 'Negro villages' for Paris 1878 World Fair; for 1900 World Fair, dem show di famous diorama wey dey 'live' for Madagascar, while Colonial Exhibitions for Marseille (1906 and 1922) and Paris (1907 and 1931) show people for cages, plenty of dem dey nude or small-cloth. Dem fit chop some kind 'Senegalese villages' wey dey move around, show say colonizers get big power wey everybody go see.

For di U.S., Madison Grant, wey be head of New York Zoological Society, show Pygmy Ota Benga for Bronx Zoo with di apes and other wahala people for 1906. Grant dey push am, one scientist wey be racist plus eugenicist, zoo boss William Temple Hornaday put Ota Benga for cage with orangutan and tag am as 'The Missing Link' to show Darwinism, plus say Africans like Ota Benga be closer to apes pass Europeans. Other colonial shows wey dem do be the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the 1931 Paris 'Exposition coloniale'.

Countering disease

From de beginning of de 20th century, na de elimination anaa control of disease insyd tropical countries cam be a driving force for all colonial powers. Na dem arrest de sleeping sickness epidemic insyd Africa thru mobile teams systematically wey dey screen millions of people at risk. Insyd de 1880s na dem bring cattle from British Asia make dem feed Italian soldiers wey dey invade Eritrea na e turn out e be infected plus a disease dem call rinderpest. Na decimation of native herds severely damage local livelihoods, wey dey force people make dem labor give dema colonizers.

For 20th century, Africa dey see population increase wey no be small because dem reduce mortality rate for plenty countries thanks to peace, famine relief, medicine, and most importantly, the end or decrease of slave trade. Africa people don burst from 120 million for 1900 to over 1 billion today oh.

Slavery abolition

Main article: Slavery in Africa § Abolition

Di wey anti-slavery movement dey continue for Western Europe, e kon be reason and excuse to chop Africa and colonize am. Na di main matter wey dem talk for di Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90. From di beginning of di Scramble for Africa, almost all di colonial people claim say dem dey motivated by wan desire to stop slavery and di slave trade. For French West Africa, after French conquer dem and stop slavery, more than one million slaves run from dia masters go back home from 1906 to 1911. For Madagascar, dem stop slavery for 1896, and about 500,000 slaves gain dem freedom. Dem don abolish slavery for French side Sahel by 1911. Independent countries wey wan show say dem dey modern or impress Europe sometimes go fit act as if dem dey fight slavery. E be say, as European people dey put pressure, Sokoto Caliphate come end slavery for 1900, and Ethiopia sef officially end am for 1932. Colonial powers fit end slavery for some places, but for Africa, e still dey happen. E don change small, come be wage work now, but slavery no ever fully vanish for Africa.

Aftermath

German Cameroon, painting by R. Hellgrewe, 1908

For New Imperialism time, as we reach end of 19th century, Europe don add near 9,000,000 square miles (23,000,000 km2) – one-fifth of di world land – to dem colonial area wey dey outside. Europe di formal holdings dem cover all Africa wey no include Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el-Hamra, di last one wey later join Spanish Sahara. From 1885 to 1914, Britain collect about 30% of Africa people for him control; France take 15%, Portugal take 11%, Germany 9%, Belgium 7% and Italy just 1%. Nigeria alone bring 15 million people, pass wetin dey for all French West Africa or whole German colony. As for land wey dem occupy, di French dey lead small-small, but plenty of dia land dey Sahara wey no get plenty people.

Politics dey carry wahala for money make dem expand, as 'colonial lobbies' dey boost bragging and war jeje for every problem to make colonial hustle look legit. Di wahala wey dey between di big countries cause plenty problems, e burst for August 1914, as di old beefs and partnerships create one wahala wey carry di major European nations join World War I.

African colonies dem list by colonising power

Belgium

Horse statue wey be Leopold II from Belgium, the big man wey dey rule Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908, for Regent Place inside Brussels, Belgium

• Belgian Congo (1908–1960, now de Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• Ruanda-Urundi (1922–1962, now Rwanda den Burundi)

France

Further information: French Africa

Di Foureau-Lamy army wey dem send comot from Algiers for 1898 na to conquer di Chad Basin and join all di French areas for West Africa.

Di Senegalese Tirailleurs, wey Colonel Alfred-Amédée Dodds dey lead, conquer Dahomey (wey be Benin now) for 1892.

French West Africa: Mauritania Senegal Albreda (1681–1857, now part of Gambia) French Sudan (now Mali, 1880 – 1958) Liberia Territorial losses of Liberia French Guinea (now Guinea) Ivory Coast Niger French Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) French Dahomey (now Benin) French Togoland (1916–60, now Togo) Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo (insyd modern Nigeria) French Equatorial Africa: Gabon French Cameroun (1922–60) French Congo (now Republic of the Congo) Oubangui-Chari (now Central African Republic) Chad French North Africa: French Algeria (1830–1962; na dem administer am as an integral part of France einself from 1848) French Protectorate of Tunisia French Protectorate of Morocco Fezzan-Ghadames (1943–1951) (administration wey UNO give after ein conquest by Charles de Gaulle) Egypt (ownership (1798–1801)) (Condominium of France den de United Kingdom (1876–1882)) French East Africa: French Madagascar Comoros Scattered islands insyd de Indian Ocean French Somaliland (now Djibouti) Isle de France (1715–1810) (now Mauritius)

Germany

• German Kamerun (now Cameroon den part of Nigeria, 1884–1916)
• German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi den most of Tanzania, 1885–1919)
• German South-West Africa (now Namibia, 1884–1915)
• German Togoland (now Togo den eastern part of Ghana, 1884–1914)

After de First World War, na dem partition Germany ein possessions among Britain (wich take a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, den Namibia), France (wich take chaw of Cameroon den eastern Togo) den Belgium (wich take Rwanda den Burundi).

Italy

Italian wey come settle for Massawa

• Italian Eritrea (1882–1936)
• Italian Somalia (1889–1936)
• Italian Ethiopia (1936–1941)
  • Oltre Giuba (annexed into Italian Somalia in 1925)
• Libya
  • Italian Tripolitania (1911–1934)
  • Italian Cyrenaica (1911–1934)
  • Italian Libya (from de unification of Tripolitania den Cyrenaica insyd 1934) (1934–1943; na coastal regions administer as an integral part of Italy einself from 1939–1943)

During de interwar period, na dem form Italian Ethiopia togeda plus Italian Eritrea den Italian Somaliland de Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana", dem sanso define am by de fascist government as L'Impero).

Portugal

Marracuene for Portuguese Mozambique be di place wey Portuguese and Gaza king Gungunhana ginger for 1895.

Portuguese Angola (now Angola) (1575–1975) Mainland Angola Portuguese Congo (now Cabinda Province of Angola) Portuguese Mozambique (now Mozambique) (1505–1975) Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau) (1588–1974) Portuguese Gold Coast (now part of Ghana) (1482–1642) Portuguese Cape Verde (1462–1975) Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe (1485–1975) São Tomé Island Príncipe Island Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá (now Ouidah, insyd Benin)

On 11 June 1951, Portugal go begin to administer ein colonies, wey dey include ein ones insyd Africa, as Overseas provinces.

Spain

Northern Spanish Morocco Chefchaouen (Chauen) Jebala (Yebala) Kert Loukkos (Lucus) Rif Spanish West Africa (1946–1958) Ifni (1934–1969) Southern Spanish Morocco (Cape Juby) Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) (1884—1958 as a colony of Spain; 1958–1976 as a Province of Spain) Saguia el-Hamra Río de Oro Spanish Guinea (now Equatorial Guinea) (1858–1968) Fernando Pó Río Muni Annobón

United Kingdom

Further information: Historiography of the British Empire

Opening of de railway for Rhodesia, 1899

Following the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the Ashanti Kingdom.

The British dem dey focus on how to keep their talk lines secure to India, so dem start dey look Egypt and South Africa.As dis two places don secure, na im be the plan of British colonizers like Cecil Rhodes make dem fit build Cape-Cairo railway and chop mineral and farm resources. Dem see control of Nile as big advantage for business and strategy. So overall, by 1921, di British don dey control about 33.23% of Africa, like 3,897,920 mi2 (10,09,55,66 km2).

Egypt British Cyrenaica (1943–1951, now part of Libya) British Tripolitania (1943–1951, now part of Libya) Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) British Somaliland (now part of Somalia) British East Africa: Kenya Colony Uganda Protectorate Tanzania: Tanganyika Territory (1919–61) Zanzibar British Mauritius Bechuanaland (now Botswana) Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) British Seychelles British South Africa South Africa: Transvaal Colony Cape Colony Colony of Natal Orange River Colony South-West Africa (from 1915, now Namibia) British West Africa Gambia Colony and Protectorate British Sierra Leone Colonial Nigeria British Togoland (1916–56, today part of Ghana) Cameroons (1922–61, now part of Cameroon den Nigeria) Gold Coast (British colony) (now Ghana) Nyasaland (now Malawi) Basutoland (now Lesotho) Swaziland (now Eswatini) Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Independent states

• Na Liberia be founded, colonized, established, den controlled by de American Colonization Society, a private organisation dem establish in order make e relocate freed African American den Caribbean slaves from de United States den de Caribbean islands insyd 1822. Na Liberia declare ein independence from de American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia be Africa ein oldest republic den de second-oldest black republic insyd de world (after Haiti). Na Liberia maintain ein independence during de period as na dem view am by European powers as either a territory, colony anaa protectorate of de United States.

• Na de same powers assume Ethiopia e be a protectorate of Italy although na de country never accept dis, wey na dem recognize ein independence from Italy after de Battle of Adwa wich na result insyd de Treaty of Addis Ababa insyd 1896. Na de country remain independent til 1936 wen na e be occupied by Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini den annex plus Italian-possessed Eritrea den Somaliland, later dey form Italian East Africa; insyd 1941, during World War II, na ebe occupied by de British Army wey na dem restore ein full sovereignty insyd 1944 after a period of military administration.

• Na de Sultanate of Aussa exist from de 18th to de 20th century. Na de Ethiopian Empire nominally lay claim to de region buh na dem meet dem plus harsh resistance. Secof dema skills insyd desert warfare, na de Afars manage to remain independent. Na de Sultan Yayyo visit Rome along plus countless oda nobility from across East Africa make dem support de creation of Italian East Africa. Na dis mark de end of de region ein independence wey na dem disestablish am den incorporate am into Italian East Africa.

• De Mbunda Kingdom, insyd present-day southeast Angola, sanso remain independent during de Scramble for Africa. For ein greatest extent, na e reach from Mithimoyi insyd central Moxico to de Cuando Cubango Province insyd de southeast, wey dey border Namibia. Na Portugal declare war on de kingdom insyd de Kolongongo War, wey dem ultimately conquer am wey dem capture King Mwene Mbandu Lyonthzi Kapova insyd 1917.

• Wen na German establish a colony insyd Namibia insyd 1884, dem lef de Ovambo kingdoms undisturbed. After World War I, na Namibia be annexed by de South African government into de Union of South Africa; na dis bring major changes, plus South African plantation, cattle breeding den mining operations wey enter de Ovamboland. De Portuguese colonial administration insyd Angola, wey na dem previously focus on dema coastal, northern den eastern operations, enter southern Angola make dem form a border plus de expanding South African presence. Na de Ovambo people launch chaw armed rebellions against South African rule insyd de 1920s den 1930s, wich dem all be suppressed by de Union Defence Force.

• Na de Dervish State exist from 1899 til 1920, after successfully repulsing de British Empire four times wey dem force am make e retreat. Na de Dervish State be de Muslim state per on de African continent make e maintain ein independence. Na de Dervishes be finally defeated insyd 1920 after de Somaliland Campaign.

• Egba, a government of de Egba people insyd Nigeria, na e be legally recognised by de British as independent til na e be annexed into de Colony den Protectorate of Nigeria insyd 1914.

Connections to modern-day events

Further information: Decolonisation of Africa and Neocolonialism

Anti-neoliberal researchers dey link di old scramble to new scramble for Africa, e dey happen as 'Afro-neoliberal' capitalist movement don show for postcolonial Africa. As African countries dey start to get independence after World War II, their economy no really change, e still dey straight. Most times, wetin dey fuel their economy na cash crops or natural resources. Dem scholars dey talk say decolonisation process keep independent African countries for colonial powers hand, cause dem dey depend on dem for economy.Dem dey talk say di structural adjustment wey dem bring come make many African governance and economy run private, dem push Africa enter di global capitalist market, and dis one make development fit happen under di Western way of doing economics and politics.

Petrostates

For dis globalization time, plenty African countries don show as petrostates (like Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Sudan). Dem na countries wey get strong business and political link between international oil companies and the top people wey dey control oil money for Africa. Plenty countries don enter some neo-imperial wahala with Africa for this time. Mary Gilmartin talk say, "the way dem dey take space be very important for imperial expansion and control"; countries wey dey globalize and wan control land for outside, dem dey do neocolonialism. Chinese people plus other Asian countries oil companies don enter Africa oil wahala wey get plenty competition. China National Petroleum Corporation don buy 40% of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Plus, Sudan dey export 50–60% of di oil wey dem dey produce to China, e fit 7% of China's imports. China dey buy equity shares for African oil fields, dey put money for industry wahala wey go help develop infrastructure and dey collect oil concessions for Africa everywhere.

References

Works dem cite

• Brantlinger, Patrick (1985). "Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent" (PDF). Critical Inquiry. 12 (1): 166–203. doi:10.1086/448326. JSTOR 1343467. S2CID 161311164.
• Hochschild, Adam (2006) [1998]. King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. London: Pan Books. ISBN 978-0-330-44198-8.
• Pakenham, Thomas (1991). The Scramble for Africa: The White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912. London: Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-10449-2. OL 9863165M.
• Robinson, Ronald; Gallagher, John; Denny, Alice (1961). Africa and the Victorians: The official mind of imperialism (2 ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 9780333310069. OL 17989466M.
• Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-59957-0.
• Southall, Roger; Melber, Henning (2009). A New Scramble For Africa?: Imperialism, Investment and Development. University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.

Read further

• Aldrich, Robert. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (1996)
• Atkinson, David. "Constructing Italian Africa: Geography and Geopolitics". Italian colonialism (2005): 15–26.
• Axelson, Eric. Portugal and the Scramble for Africa: 1875–1891 (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand UP, 1967)
• Betts, Raymond F., ed. The scramble for Africa: causes and dimensions of empire (Heath, 1972), short excerpts from historians. online
• Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "What Caused the Scramble for Africa?" African History (2012). online
• Chamberlain, Muriel Evelyn. The scramble for Africa (4th ed. Routledge, 2014) excerpt and text search; also complete text of 2nd edition 1999
• Curtin, Philip D. Disease and empire: The health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1998)

• Darwin, John. "Imperialism and the Victorians: The dynamics of territorial expansion." English Historical Review (1997) 112#447 pp. 614–42.
• Finaldi, Giuseppe. Italian National Identity in the Scramble for Africa: Italy's African Wars in the Era of Nation-building, 1870–1900 (Peter Lang, 2009)
• Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds. Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa conference 1884–1885 and the onset of partition (Oxford University Press, 1988) online
• Gifford, Prosser, and William Roger Louis. France and Britain in Africa: Imperial Rivalry and Colonial Rule (1971)
• Gifford, Prosser, and William Roger Louis. Britain and Germany in Africa: Imperial rivalry and colonial rule (1967) online.
• Gjersø, Jonas Fossli (2015). "The Scramble for East Africa: British Motives Reconsidered, 1884–95". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 43 (5): 831–860. doi:10.1080/03086534.2015.1026131. S2CID 143514840.
• Hammond, Richard James. Portugal and Africa, 1815–1910: a study in uneconomic imperialism (Stanford University Press, 1966) online

• Henderson, W.O. The German Colonial Empire, 1884–1919 (London: Frank Cass, 1993)
• Hinsley, F.H. ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 11: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962) contents pp. 593–40.
• Klein, Martin A. Slavery and colonial rule in French West Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1998)
• Koponen, Juhani, The Partition of Africa: A Scramble for a Mirage? Nordic Journal of African Studies, 2, no. 1 (1993): 134.
• Lewis, David Levering. The race to Fashoda: European colonialism and African resistance in the scramble for Africa (1988) online
• Lovejoy, Paul E. Transformations in slavery: a history of slavery in Africa (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
• Lloyd, Trevor Owen. Empire: the history of the British Empire (2001).
• Mackenzie J.M. The Partition of Africa, 1880–1900, and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (London 1983) online
• Middleton, Lamar. The Rape Of Africa (London, 1936) online

• Minawi, Mustafa. The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (2016) online
• Oliver, Roland, Sir Harry Johnston and the Scramble for Africa (1959) online
• Penrose, E.F., ed. European Imperialism and the Partition of Africa (London, 1975).
• Perraudin, Michael, and Jürgen Zimmerer, eds. German colonialism and national identity (London: Taylor & Francis, 2010).
• Porter, Andrew, ed. The Oxford history of the British Empire: The nineteenth century. Vol. 3 (1999) online, pp. 624–650.
• Robinson, Ronald, and John Gallagher. "The partition of Africa", in The New Cambridge Modern History vol XI, pp. 593–640 (Cambridge, 1962).
• Rotberg, Robert I. The Founder: Cecil Rhodes and the Pursuit of Power (1988) excerpt and text search;

• Sarr, Felwine, and Savoy, Bénédicte, The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage, Toward a New Relational Ethics (2018) http://restitutionreport2018.com/sarr_savoy_en.pdf Archived 2021-03-26 at the Wayback Machine
• Sanderson, G.N., "The European partition of Africa: Coincidence or conjuncture?" Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (1974) 3#1 pp. 1–54.
• Stoecker, Helmut. German imperialism in Africa: From the beginnings until the Second World War (Hurst & Co., 1986.)
• Thomas, Antony. Rhodes: The Race for Africa (1997) excerpt and text search
• Thompson, Virginia, and Richard Adloff. French West Africa (Stanford University Press, 1958)
• Vandervort, Bruce. Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa, 1830―1914 (Indiana University Press, 2009).
• Wesseling, H.L. and Arnold J. Pomerans. Divide and rule: The partition of Africa, 1880–1914 (Praeger, 1996.)

Primary sources

• Brooke-Smith, Robin. Documents And Debate: The Scramble For Africa (Macmillan Education, 1987) online
• Chamberlain. M.E. The Scramble for Africa (2nd ed. 1999) pp. 94–125 online

External links

• Osborn, Andrew (13 July 2002). "Belgium exhumes its colonial demons". The Guardian.
• Fischer, Hilke (25 February 2015). "130 years ago: carving up Africa in Berlin". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 6 June 2021.