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Water scarcity in Africa

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Water scarcity in Africa
human settlement
Facet givewater scarcity Edit
CountryUganda Edit
Ein locationMbale City Edit
Mwamanogu Village water source, Tanzania. Insyd Meatu District, Shinyanga Region, water most often dey cam from open holes dug insyd de sand of dry riverbeds, den e be invariably contaminated.

De main causes of water scarcity insyd Africa be physical den economic water scarcity, rapid population growth, den de effects of climate change on de water. Water scarcity be wen fresh water resources no dey to meet de standard water demand.[1] De rainfall insyde sub-Saharan Africa be highly seasonal den unevenly distributed, leading to frequent floods den droughts.[2]

De Food den Agriculture Organization of de United Nations report insyde 2012 dat growing water scarcity be now one of de leading challenges for sustainable development.[3] Dis be secof an increasing number of river basins reach conditions of water scarcity. De reasons for dis be de combined demands of agriculture den oda sectors. Water scarcity insyd Africa get several impacts. Dem range from health, particularly wey dey affect women den kiddies, to education, agricultural productivity, den sustainable development. E sanso fi lead to more water conflicts.

To adequately address de issue of water scarcity insyd Africa, de United Nations Economic Commission for Africa dey emphasize de need to invest insyd de development of Africa ein potential water resources. Dis would improve food security den water security, den protect economic gains by effectively managing droughts, floods den desertification.[4]

Scale

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Local girls from Babile (Ethiopia) fill plastic water containers at de area ein main water source.

Sub-Saharan Africa get de largest number of water-stressed countries of any oda place on de planet den of an estimated 800 million people wey dey live insyd Africa, 300 million live insyd a water-stressed environment.[5] Insyd 2012, e be estimate dat by 2030, 75 million to 250 million people insyd Africa go live insyd areas of high water stress.[5] Dis go likely displace anywhere between 24 million den 700 million people as conditions becam increasingly unlivable.[5]

Africa be de second driest continent insyd de world, plus millions of Africans still dey suffer from water shortages thru out de year.[6] Dese shortages be attributed to problems of uneven distribution, population growth den poor management of existing supplies. Sam times der be smaller numbers of people wey dey reside wer der be large amount of water. For example, 30 percent of de continent ein water dey lie insyd de Congo Basin inhabited by only 10 percent of Africa ein population.[6][7]

Der be significant variation insyd de rainfall patterns wey dey observe insyd different places den time. Der sanso be high evaporation rates insyd sam parts of de region wey dey result insyd lower percentages of precipitation insyd such places.[8][7]

However, der be very significant inter- den intra-annual variability of all climate den water resources characteristics, so while sam regions get sufficient water,[9] Sub-Saharan Africa dey face numerous water-related challenges dat constrain economic growth den threaten de livelihoods of ein people.[9] African Agriculture be mostly based on rain-fed farming, den less dan 10% of cultivated land insyd de continent be irritated.[10][9] De impact of climate change den variability be thus very pronounced.[9]

Regional variance

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Northern Africa den Sub-Saharan Africa dey progress towards de Millennium Development Goal on water at different paces.[2] While Northern Africa get 92% safe water coverage, Sub-Saharan Africa remain at a low 60% of coverage—wey dey leave 40% of de 783 million people insyd dat region widout access to clean drinking water.[2]

Sam of dese differences wey dey insyd clean water availability fit attribute to Africa ein extreme climates. Although Sub-Saharan Africa get a plentiful supply of rainwater, e be seasonal den unevenly distributed, wey dey lead to frequent floods den droughts.[2] Additionally, prevalent economic development den poverty issues, dem compound plus rapid population growth den rural-urban migration dey render Sub-Saharan Africa as de world ein poorest den least developed region.[2] Thus, dis poverty constrain dey deprive chaw cities insyd dis region from providing clean water den sanitation services as well as preventing de further deterioration of water quality even wen opportunities exist to address dese water issues.[2] Additionally, de rapid population growth dey lead to an increased number of African settlements on flood-prone den high-risk land.[2]

De latest report of de SDG goal 6 mention various facts about water status insyd sub-Saharan Africa wey dey include de lack of hygiene den ein impact on de nutritional status especially among kiddies secof increased rate of infectious diseases. Sanso, almost 1/3 of de sub-Saharan population dey insyd danger of hunger secof lack of access to food. Furthermore, sub-Saharan Africa dey lack access to safe drinking water by 76% while only 6% of Europe den Northern America no be covered.[11]

Causes

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Physical and Economic Scarcity

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Water scarcity be both natural and human-made problem. People fit divide am into two main categories: economic scarcity and physical scarcity.[12]

Economic scarcity mean say getting reliable and safe water source fit take plenty time and cost plenty money. Physical scarcity mean say the amount of water available for a particular area no dey enough to meet the current needs of the population.[13]

The 2006 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimate say out of the 800 million people wey live for Africa, about 300 million of them dey live for places wey water scarce.[4]

Especially for the northern and southern parts of Africa, increasing global temperatures because of climate change don intensify the hydrological cycle. This dey lead to drier dry seasons and increase the risk of more frequent and severe droughts. This situation seriously affect water availability, quality and quantity because river flows reduce, reservoir storage drop, water tables go down, and aquifers for northern and southern Africa dry up.

Explanation of the severity of drought across different geographical areas in Africa

Inside the physical scarcity category too, there be the problem of overexploitation. This dey contribute to the shrinking of many of Africa's major lakes, including Nakivale, Nakuru and Lake Chad. Lake Chad, for example, don shrink reach only 10% of its former size.[14]

For policy side, incentives wey encourage overuse of water resources be among the most damaging factors, especially concerning groundwater extraction. Once people install pumps, many countries only control water extraction based on electricity costs. In many cases, governments even subsidize electricity for agriculture, making people less motivated to conserve groundwater resources.[14]

In addition, many African countries set water prices below the actual cost of providing the service. This discourages efficient use of water and threatens long-term sustainability.[14]

Population Growth

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For the past century, the world's population don more than double.[15]

Africa get the fastest-growing population for the world. Experts expect say the continent's population go increase by around 50% within the next 18 years, growing from 1.2 billion people today to more than 1.8 billion by 2035. In fact, Africa alone go account for almost half of the world's population growth over the next two decades.[16]

The relationship be simple: as population increase, demand for water too increase. At the same time, water resources for many African regions dey reduce because people don settle in areas wey previously serve as water sources.

As population dey grow rapidly, there be urgent demand for better health services, improved quality of life, food security and support for industrial growth. All these things place additional pressure on the available water resources.[17]

The growing population go only make the water scarcity crisis worse as more pressure dey put on available water resources. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, about 41% of the world's population currently live inside river basins wey already dey experience water stress.[18]

This dey create serious concern because many regions dey approach the limits where water services fit no longer be delivered sustainably.[19]

Globally, about 55% of people now live in urban areas, and by 2030 this figure fit increase by another 5%. Africa dey experience the same trend. Large cities like Lagos, Kinshasa and Nairobi don double their populations within just fifteen years.[20]

Even though more people dey move into these cities, the amount of fresh water available remain the same or even reduce. This population increase create a growing imbalance between water supply and water demand in urban areas.[20]

Apart from contributing to the imbalance between water demand and supply, urbanization also increase water pollution. As more people move into cities, more sewage and waste dey enter rivers, lakes and other water bodies.[21]

For many developing countries, more than 90% of sewage generated ends up in water bodies without treatment. Also, sewage systems are often poorly maintained, so leaks from sewage pipes enter the soil and eventually pollute underground water sources.[21]

Climate Change

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According to the Africa Partnership Forum, "Although Africa be the continent wey contribute least to climate change, e be one of the most vulnerable to its effects."[22]

The long-term effects include changing rainfall patterns wey affect agriculture and reduce food security, worsening water security, declining fish resources in major lakes because of rising temperatures, sea-level rise affecting low-lying coastal areas, and increasing water stress.[22]

These impacts fit seriously affect both the quantity and quality of water children need to survive.[23]

Studies predict say by 2050, rainfall in Sub-Saharan Africa fit reduce by 10%, leading to major water shortages. This 10% reduction in rainfall go reduce drainage by 17%, while areas wey currently receive 500–600 mm of rainfall per year fit experience reductions of 50% and 30% respectively in surface drainage.[24]

In addition, the Human Development Report predict say rising temperatures combined with 10% less rainfall for the interior regions of Africa go worsen water shortages because evaporation and water loss go increase.[14]

Droughts and floods are considered the most dangerous threats to physical water scarcity.[25]

This warming effect go be strongest for the semi-arid regions around the Sahara, the Sahel, and inland parts of southern Africa.[14] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports say climate change for Africa don show itself through more intense and longer droughts for the subtropics and tropics. At the same time, arid and semi-arid areas for northern, western, eastern, and some parts of southern Africa dey become drier and more vulnerable to changes in rainfall patterns and storms.[22]

Climate change don contribute plenty to the already worsening water crisis for Africa and the whole world, making the World Health Organization declare climate change as the biggest threat to global health for the 21st century.[26]

The Human Development Report further explain say because Africa depend heavily on rain-fed agriculture, widespread poverty, and weak institutional capacity, the water-related problems caused by climate change dey affect the continent more seriously than developed countries wey get enough resources and economic diversity to manage such global changes. This increased risk of drought and falling crop yields fit lead to more poverty, lower incomes, less secure livelihoods, and a greater threat of chronic hunger among the poorest people for sub-Saharan Africa.[14]

Overall, this mean say water stress wey dey result from changing rainfall patterns dey affect Africa badly. Because of this, climate change remain one of the biggest challenges wey the continent must overcome if e want secure reliable and clean water sources for its people.

Impacts

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Health

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People wey dey live for areas where water dey scarce dey often depend on unsafe water sources, and this dey increase the spread of waterborne diseases like typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and diarrhea.[27]

Water scarcity too dey force many households to store water inside house, and this dey increase risk of contamination and also increase mosquito-related diseases like malaria and dengue fever.[27] These diseases normally no dey common for developed countries because dem get better water treatment systems wey dey filter and chlorinate water. But for places wey water infrastructure no strong, people dey rely on untreated natural water sources wey fit contain harmful bacteria and parasites.[13]

Even though many of these diseases fit be treated or prevented, dem still be among the leading causes of sickness and death worldwide. Every year, about 2.2 million people die from diarrhea-related diseases, and at any time, about half of hospital beds globally dey occupied by patients with water-related illnesses.[28] Small children and infants dey more affected because their immune system no strong yet,[13] which dey lead to high infant mortality rates especially for many African regions.

When people fall sick from these waterborne diseases, dem no fit work well or contribute to community development because of weakness. Also, money wey families, communities, and governments fit use for development dey go into medical treatment instead of education or food supply.[13] Some farmers too dey use contaminated water to irrigate crops, and this fit introduce diseases like intestinal worm infections, hepatitis A and E, and dysentery through food consumption.[29]

Women and Girls

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For Africa, women and men no dey share water responsibilities equally. Because of social structure, women dey carry most of the burden of finding, managing, and storing water, especially for household activities like cooking, washing, cleaning, and child care.[30]

Because of these roles, many women dey spend up to 60% of their daily time just to fetch water. Globally, this represent about 200 million work hours per day, and e also reduce time wey dem fit use for education or income activities.[31]

Another serious issue be lack of menstrual hygiene support for girls. When schools no provide clean toilets or proper hygiene materials, many girls dey miss school or drop out completely after puberty.[32] Water scarcity dey make this problem worse because decrease in water access dey strongly affect female school enrollment across all education levels.[30]

For many African women, fetching water mean say dem go carry heavy jerrycan wey fit weigh over 40 pounds (18 kg) when full[13] and walk around 6 kilometers (3.7 mi)* every day.[28] This dey cause serious health problems like long-term bone and spine damage.[33] E also dey affect mental and physical wellbeing, reduce school attendance, and affect learning ability because stress fit affect memory and decision-making. Access to clean water, however, dey help improve health and school attendance for students.[30]

Agriculture

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Ethiopia plan to fill the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam reservoir fit reduce Nile River flow by up to 25% and affect Egyptian farmland badly.[34]

Most African people still depend on farming, and about 80% to 90% of rural households depend on farming for food.[33] Because of this, water scarcity directly affect food security. More than 70% of farming for Sub-Saharan Africa be rain-fed agriculture, so crops dey very vulnerable to droughts and floods caused by changing weather patterns.

According to the UN Economic Commission for Africa and the New Partnership for Africa's Development, irrigation be key to improving agricultural production, economic growth, and food security.[33] But many rural communities still no dey fully use irrigation systems. Globally, irrigation farming account for about 20% of agriculture, but Sub-Saharan Africa still lag behind in this area.[35]

From the 1960s, international donors like the World Bank support irrigation development in Africa, but many projects no give expected crop yields.[36] Still, the World Bank estimate say agricultural production in Sub-Saharan Africa fit nearly triple by 2050.[37]

Sustainable Development Goal 2 dey focus on ending hunger and improving sustainable agriculture.[11] To achieve this, agriculture system must shift from only high-yield crops to more diverse and nutritious crops wey fit improve diet quality.[38]

However, lack of money, skills, and infrastructure dey make irrigation and modern farming difficult in many areas. Because of this, droughts, floods, and desertification dey cause serious economic loss and food shortage. Malnutrition too dey reduce lifetime earnings by about 10%, and countries fit lose 2–3% of GDP because of undernutrition.[39]

In many places, people dey also use untreated wastewater for farming, which fit introduce harmful chemicals and disease organisms into food.[27] Methods like greywater wetlands and sand filtration dey proposed to treat such water before reuse.[40]

Overall, to deal with water scarcity in Africa, there must be better investment in clean water access, irrigation development, and climate change adaptation strategies so say food security and public health go improve.[4]

Productivity and development

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Poverty get direct link with how people dey get access to clean drinking water—if no clean water, chance say person go fit come out of the poverty trap dey very small. This idea of “water poverty trap” na economists wey study sub-Saharan Africa first talk am, and e mean say people dey stuck inside one cycle of money poverty, low farm output, and environmental damage wey dey increase pass.[30] Inside this negative cycle, lack of water resources dey connect with lack of financial resources, and e dey affect everybody—individuals, households, and whole communities.[30]

Inside this poverty trap, people dey face low income, high cost wey dem need pay for water facilities, and dem no get credit or support to invest for water projects. This make investment in water and land very low, and people no fit invest in businesses wey fit bring money. In the end, resources dey spoil, and people remain inside chronic poverty.[30]

On top this matter, for slums inside developing countries, poor people dey often pay five to ten times more for water per unit than people wey get pipe-borne water. This one dey happen because of problems like lack of infrastructure and government corruption, wey even fit make water services cost increase by 10% to 30%.[33][41]

The social and economic effects of lack of clean water dey reach many areas like education, job opportunities, physical strength and health, agriculture and industrial development, and overall productive power of people, communities, and whole country. Because of this, UN estimate say Sub-Saharan Africa alone dey lose about 40 billion potential working hours every year just because people dey go fetch water instead of doing productive work.[13]

Conflict

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Population growth across the world and climate change na two big factors wey together fit cause water conflicts for many parts of the world.[42] Already, population explosion for developing countries inside Africa, combined with climate change, dey put serious pressure inside countries and between different nations. Before-before, countries dey solve water problems through negotiation, but now people dey predict say aggression over water access fit increase.

Africa water vulnerability wey fit cause conflict fit be grouped into four main river basin areas: the Nile, Niger, Zambezi and Volta basins.[41] For the Nile wey dey pass through Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan, the water matter fit cause serious tension and disagreement.[41]

For Niger basin, the river dey go from Guinea pass through Mali reach Nigeria. Especially for Mali—wey be one of the poorest countries—the river dey very important for food, water and transport, but overuse dey make the water dey dirty and harder to use.[41]

For southern Africa, the Zambezi river basin na one of the most heavily used river systems. Because of that, Zambia and Zimbabwe dey compete for am. In 2000, Zimbabwe open the Kariba Dam gates, which cause serious flooding wey affect the whole region badly.[41]

For Volta basin, Ghana depend heavily on hydroelectric power from the river, but drought dey disturb the water level wey Akosombo Dam need to generate electricity. This dey affect Ghana economy and energy supply and fit also cause regional instability if e continue.[41]

At this point, intelligence agencies don talk say within the next ten years, water issue no likely go start full war by itself. But if current consumption and climate stress continue, UNECA predict say water scarcity for Africa fit reach dangerous level by 2025. This mean say water matter fit become more serious security issue going forward.[43]

Based on classified National Intelligence Estimate on water security wey US State Department request under Hillary Clinton in 2011, after 2022 water go more likely be used as weapon of war or even for terrorism, especially for North Africa.[43] Because of this, the World Economic Forum 2011 Global Risk Report include water scarcity as one of the top five global risks for the first time.

Approaches for managing scarcity

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Water permit systems

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Some regions in African countries like Tanzania don try use water permit systems to manage water scarcity. For this system, local rules dey control how people go get access to certain amount of water for specific places. But this kind system sometimes dey create more conflict, because big commercial irrigators fit take most of the water, leave smallholder farmers wey dey depend on am for survival.[44]

But desalination plants get serious challenges too. E dey need plenty electricity, chemicals, and strong infrastructure, which make am hard for many developing countries to build and maintain.

Approaches for managing scarcity

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Water permit systems

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Some regions in African countries like Tanzania don try use water permit systems to manage water scarcity. For this system, local rules dey control how people go get access to certain amount of water for specific places. But this kind system sometimes dey create more conflict, because big commercial irrigators fit take most of the water, leave smallholder farmers wey dey depend on am for survival.[45]

But desalination plants get serious challenges too. E dey need plenty electricity, chemicals, and strong infrastructure, which make am hard for many developing countries to build and maintain.

International and non-governmental organizations' efforts

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To properly deal with water scarcity for Africa, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa talk say there is need to invest in developing Africa water resources so that unnecessary suffering go reduce, food security go improve, and economic gains go protect through proper management of droughts, floods, and desertification.[4] Some of the solutions wey dem suggest and dey already happen include building and improving wells, rainwater collection systems, and clean water storage tanks.

The United Nations itself also try tackle water scarcity through the Millennium Development Goals. The goals include eight international development targets, and seven of them directly connect to water issues. Water access dey affect poverty, food shortage, education level, women social and economic power, livelihood security, disease control, and overall human and environmental health.[46] Because water is very important to achieving the MDGs, one target be to reduce by half the number of people worldwide without safe drinking water by 2015. In March 2012, UN announce say this target almost achieved four years before deadline, showing say global efforts dey make progress.[47]

As one of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, United States also dey play big role in supporting clean water solutions. One of their efforts include USAID WASH programme—Water, Sanitation and Hygiene partnership with Gates Foundation—weh dey support access to clean water and sanitation for poor communities. The aim na to test and scale up solutions wey fit work well for disadvantaged areas.[47] In March 2012, Hillary Clinton announce US Water Partnership, wey bring together private sector, NGOs, experts, academics and government to find better system-wide solutions.[47] The idea be say the technology and solutions already dey, but many people no fit access them, so the partnership go help make them available at community level.

Apart from governments and UN, many non-governmental and charitable organizations also dey work to provide clean water for Africa and other parts of the world. These groups depend on donations from individuals and organizations, and they use the funds to build water infrastructure and support clean water projects.[48] For example, Water to Thrive na non-profit wey dey provide clean water for East Africa. Since 2008, dem don build over 2,000 wells for Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Uganda.[49]

By 2015, about 90% of people for the world don get access to safe drinking water and sanitation because of these global efforts. The Sustainable Development Goals continue from there, with Goal 6 focused on “Clean Water and Sanitation for All.” The target be say by 2030, everybody go get access to clean water, sanitation go improve especially for vulnerable people, waste treatment go increase, and water pollution go reduce. The goal also encourage more cooperation between international and local actors to improve how water resources dey managed.[11]

Limitations

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Africa dey host both the highest number of water-scarce countries for any region, and also some of the hardest places to reach when e come to water aid work. Many rural villages dey trap these areas inside wetin the UN Economic Commission for Africa call the “Harvesting Stage,”[4] meaning say the level of development and infrastructure no strong enough to support long-term, sustainable water solutions. Because of this, even when help come, e dey hard to maintain am.

Aside geography and development challenges, political and economic issues too dey affect water aid delivery. For political side, tensions between local governments and foreign NGOs sometimes make it difficult for money, equipment, and aid workers to operate well on ground. For economic side, big inequality between rich and poor people for cities mean say poor people dey often pay four to ten times more for safe water than wealthy people, which makes it harder for them to benefit from clean water systems and interventions.[4]

Because of all these combined problems, many water projects no dey succeed long-term. E be estimated say about 50% of water projects fail, less than 5% ever get proper visits after implementation, and less than 1% receive any form of long-term monitoring or maintenance support.[31]

Rainwater harvesting

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Rainwater harvesting (RWH) na the process of collecting and storing rainwater instead of letting am flow away. Rain dey fall on surfaces like roofs, and then dem dey channel am go storage systems like tanks, cisterns, deep pits (like wells, shafts, or boreholes), aquifers, or reservoirs through percolation. The water wey dem collect later dey use for productive purposes.[50]

Because of the need to improve access to safe drinking water for developing countries, rainwater harvesting become part of the efforts under the Millennium Development Goals, especially the target to reduce by half the number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water by 2015.[51]

This make rainwater harvesting become more popular as one solution to increase availability of potable water. In many cases, RWH dey used especially for places where normal water supply systems no fit meet people needs or no dey reliable.[52]

    1. == Causes ==
      1. === Physical and economic scarcity ===

Water scarcity be both natural and human-made thing, and e fit be divided into two main types: economic scarcity and physical scarcity.[53]

Economic scarcity mean say e dey hard, take time, and cost plenty money before person fit find reliable source of clean water. Physical scarcity mean say the water wey dey inside the area no reach to meet the people wey dey live there based on their current needs.[13]

The 2006 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimate say about 300 million out of 800 million people for Africa dey live inside water-scarce environment.[4] Especially for far north, far south, and some parts of Africa, rising global temperature from climate change don make the water cycle more extreme—dry seasons dey dry pass before, and drought dey happen more often.

This thing dey affect availability, quality, and quantity of water because rivers dey reduce, reservoirs dey empty, underground water (aquifers) dey go down, and many water sources dey dry up.

The severity of African drought explained in different geographical areas

One of the physical scarcity issues be overuse of water resources. This one dey contribute to shrinkage of big African lakes like Nakivale, Nakuru, and Lake Chad, wey don reduce reach about 10% of its original size.[14]

For policy side, overuse dey happen because of wrong incentives, especially for underground water. Once person install pump, many times the only restriction be electricity cost, and some governments even subsidize electricity for farming, which make people overuse water. [14]

Also, many African countries set water price very low, below the real cost of maintenance, and this one dey discourage careful use and threaten long-term sustainability.[14]

      1. === Population growth ===

Over the past century, world population don more than double.[54]

Africa population dey grow fast pass any continent. E fit increase by about 50% within the next 18 years—from about 1.2 billion people today to over 1.8 billion by 2035. Africa alone go contribute almost half of global population growth for the next two decades.[55]

As population increase, water demand also dey increase. But at the same time, some water sources dey reduce because people dey settle inside places wey before be natural water catchment areas.

This situation dey create pressure for better health care, food security, better living standard, and industrial growth—all of which need water to function.[56]

Because of this, water stress go continue to increase unless management improve. According to World Wide Fund for Nature, about 41% of world population already dey live inside river basins wey dey under water stress.[57]

Urban areas for Africa also dey grow fast. Cities like Lagos, Kinshasa, and Nairobi don double their population within about 15 years.[20]

Even though people dey move go city, water supply no dey increase at the same rate. This dey create imbalance between water demand and water supply.

Urbanization also dey increase water pollution because more sewage and waste dey enter rivers and water bodies.[21] For many developing countries, over 90% of sewage dey go water bodies without treatment, which dey worsen contamination problem.

Climate change

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The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report say climate change for Africa dey show itself through more intense and longer droughts for subtropical and tropical areas. Northern, western, eastern, and some southern parts of Africa dey become drier and rainfall pattern dey change plenty.[22]

Climate change don worsen already existing water crisis for Africa and the world. Because of this, the World Health Organization describe climate change as one of the biggest threats to global health in the 21st century.[26]

Human Development Report explain say Africa depend heavily on rain-fed farming, and many people dey poor with weak systems to adapt. Because of this, climate change dey affect Africa more harshly than developed countries wey get stronger economy and better technology to cope.[14]

This situation fit cause lower crop yields, more poverty, lower income, hunger, and less stable livelihoods especially for people for Sub-Saharan Africa.[14]

Overall, climate change make water stress more serious for Africa, and e remain one of the biggest obstacles to reliable and safe water access.

References

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  1. ↑ "Water Scarcity | Threats | WWF". World Wildlife Fund (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-29.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "International Decade for Action: Water for Life 2005-2015". Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  3. ↑ FAO (2012). Coping with water scarcity - An action framework for agriculture and food security, FAO Rome.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Management Options to Enhance Survival and Growth" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  5. 1 2 3 "Archive: Conference on Water Scarcity in Africa: Issues and Challenges". Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  6. 1 2 "Water in Africa". studyres.com. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  7. 1 2 Gachanja, Anthony; Mastrangelo, Pedro; Mcguigan, Kevin; Naicker, Presthantie; and Zewge, Feleke (2010). Africa's Water Quality: A Chemical Science Perspective. London: Pan Africa Chemistry Network, Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 8.
  8. ↑ "Water in Africa". African Studies Centre Leiden (in English). 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  9. 1 2 3 4 The United Nations World Water Development Report 2016: Water and Jobs. Paris: UNESCO. 2016. ISBN 978-92-3-100146-8. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license.
  10. ↑ "Cooperation in International Waters in Africa (CIWA)". worldbank.org. Retrieved 2016-11-13.
  11. 1 2 3 United Nations. Goal 6: Ensure Access to Water and Sanitation for All. Sustainable Development Goals Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "SDG" defined multiple times with different content.
  12. ↑ "International Decade for Action: Water for Life 2005-2015". Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Water Scarcity: The Importance of Water & Access". Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "Water Scarcity, Risk, and Vulnerability" (PDF). Retrieved 18 March 2013.
  15. ↑ "International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity". un.org (in English). Retrieved 2022-11-08.
  16. ↑ ISSAfrica.org (2017-05-15). "Africa's population boom: burden or opportunity?". ISS Africa (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-29.
  17. ↑ Falkenmark, Malin (1990). "Rapid Population Growth and Water Scarcity: The Predicament of Tomorrow's Africa". Population and Development Review. 16: 81–94. doi:10.2307/2808065. ISSN 0098-7921. JSTOR 2808065.
  18. ↑ "Water Scarcity | Threats | WWF". World Wildlife Fund (in English). Retrieved 2022-11-08.
  19. ↑ "Water Scarcity". UN-Water (in English). Retrieved 2026-06-07.
  20. 1 2 3 Chitonge, Horman (2020-04-02). "Urbanisation and the water challenge in Africa: Mapping out orders of water scarcity". African Studies. 79 (2): 192–211. doi:10.1080/00020184.2020.1793662. ISSN 0002-0184. S2CID 221361042. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":0" defined multiple times with different content.
  21. 1 2 3 Wang, Yuan-Xu (2020-08-27). "Runoff pollution control of a sewage discharge project based on green concept – a sewage runoff pollution control system". Water Supply. 20 (8): 3676–3686. Bibcode:2020WatSu..20.3676W. doi:10.2166/ws.2020.183. ISSN 1606-9749.
  22. 1 2 3 4 "Climate Change and Africa" (PDF). Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  23. ↑ "Water and the global climate crisis: 10 things you should know". unicef.org (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-29.
  24. ↑ Stocker, Thomas (2014). Climate change 2013: the physical science basis : Working Group I contribution to the Fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (in English). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05799-9. OCLC 879855060.
  25. ↑ Reinacher, L. (2013 Oct 3). The Water Crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Borgen Project.
  26. 1 2 Kumaresan, Jacob; Sathiakumar, Nalini (2010-03-01). "Climate change and its potential impact on health: a call for integrated action". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 88 (3): 163. doi:10.2471/blt.10.076034. ISSN 0042-9686. PMC 2828801. PMID 20428377.
  27. 1 2 3 "10 Facts About Water Scarcity". Archived from the original on November 16, 2008. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  28. 1 2 "The Facts About The Global Drinking Water Crisis". 2010. Archived from the original on 5 September 2012. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  29. ↑ Qadir, M.; Wichelns, D.; Raschid-Sally, L.; McCornick, P.G.; Drechsel, P.; Bahri, A.; Minhas, P.S. (2010). "The challenges of wastewater irrigation in developing countries". Agricultural Water Management. 97 (4): 561–568. Bibcode:2010AgWM...97..561Q. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2008.11.004. hdl:10161/5966.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Crow, Ben; Roy, Jessica (2004-03-26). "Gender Relations and Access to Water: What We Want to Know About Social Relations and Women's Time Allocation". UC Santa Cruz: Center for Global, International and Regional Studies. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
  31. 1 2 "Women Affected by the Crisis". Archived from the original on 5 December 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  32. ↑ "The Water Crisis: Education in Africa".
  33. 1 2 3 4 "Coping With Water Scarcity: Challenge of the 21st Century" (PDF). Retrieved 18 March 2013.
  34. ↑ "In Africa, War Over Water Looms As Ethiopia Nears Completion Of Nile River Dam". NPR. 27 February 2018.
  35. ↑ Kauffman, J., Mantel, S., Ringersma, J., Dijkshoorn, J., Van Lynden, G., Dent, D. Making Better Use of Green Water in Sub-Saharan Africa.
  36. ↑ Kadigi, R., Tesfay, G., Bizoza, A., Zinabou, G. (2013). Global Development Network GDN Working Paper Series Irrigation and Water Use Efficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa Working Paper No. 63.
  37. ↑ Bjornlund, Vibeke; Bjornlund, Henning; Van Rooyen, Andre F. (2020-10-01). "Why agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa remains low compared to the rest of the world – a historical perspective". International Journal of Water Resources Development. 36 (sup1): S20 – S53. Bibcode:2020IJWRD..36S..20B. doi:10.1080/07900627.2020.1739512. ISSN 0790-0627. S2CID 218928549.
  38. ↑ Mabhaudhi, Tafadzwanashe; Chibarabada, Tendai; Modi, Albert (2016). "Water-Food-Nutrition-Health Nexus: Linking Water to Improving Food, Nutrition and Health in Sub-Saharan Africa". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 13 (1): 107. Bibcode:2016IJERP..13..107M. doi:10.3390/ijerph13010107. PMC 4730498. PMID 26751464.
  39. ↑ Bain, L., Et al. (2013). Malnutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa: Burden, Causes and Prospects. Pan African Medical Journal.
  40. ↑ Madungwe, Emaculate; Sakuringwa, Saniso (2007). "Greywater reuse: A strategy for water demand management in Harare?". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. 32 (15–18): 1231–1236. Bibcode:2007PCE....32.1231M. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.015.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "21st".
  42. ↑ ["The) Coming Wars for Water". Report Syndication. October 12, 2019. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  43. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "usi".
  44. ↑ Komakech, Hc; Condon, M; Van der Zaag, P (2012). ["The role of statutory and local rules in allocating water between large- and small-scale irrigators in an African river catchment". Water) SA. 38 (1): 115–126. doi:10.4314/wsa.v38i1.14. ISSN 0378-4738. Archived from [the original on 12) August 2016. {{cite journal}}: Check |archive-url= value (help); Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |archive-date= (help)

    Desalination

    Desalination na process wey dey turn salty sea water into fresh water by removing the salt inside am. Many African countries like Algeria, Morocco, and South Africa dey use this technology to fight water scarcity.<ref>Dhakal, Nirajan; Salinas-Rodriguez, Sergio G.; Hamdani, Jamal; Abushaban, Almotasembellah; Sawalha, Hassan; Schippers, Jan C.; Kennedy, Maria D. (April 2022). "Is Desalination a Solution to Freshwater Scarcity in Developing Countries?". Membranes. 12 (4): 381. doi:10.3390/membranes12040381. ISSN 2077-0375. PMC 9029386. PMID 35448351.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  45. ↑ Komakech, Hc; Condon, M; Van der Zaag, P (2012). ["The role of statutory and local rules in allocating water between large- and small-scale irrigators in an African river catchment". Water) SA. 38 (1): 115–126. doi:10.4314/wsa.v38i1.14. ISSN 0378-4738. Archived from [the original on 12) August 2016. {{cite journal}}: Check |archive-url= value (help); Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |archive-date= (help)

    Desalination

    Desalination na process wey dey turn salty sea water into fresh water by removing the salt inside am. Many African countries like Algeria, Morocco, and South Africa dey use this technology to fight water scarcity.<ref>Dhakal, Nirajan; Salinas-Rodriguez, Sergio G.; Hamdani, Jamal; Abushaban, Almotasembellah; Sawalha, Hassan; Schippers, Jan C.; Kennedy, Maria D. (April 2022). "Is Desalination a Solution to Freshwater Scarcity in Developing Countries?". Membranes. 12 (4): 381. doi:10.3390/membranes12040381. ISSN 2077-0375. PMC 9029386. PMID 35448351.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  46. ↑ ["International Decade for Action Water for Life 2005-2015: Water Scarcity". Retrieved 1) April 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  47. 1 2 3 "Remarks in Honor of World Water Day". Archived from [the original on 27) March 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |archive-date= (help)
  48. ↑ ["Water Charities:A Comprehensive List". Archived from [the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 11) April 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |archive-url= value (help); Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)](https://web.archive.org/web/20170703060935/http://www.filtersfast.com/articles/Water-Charities-A-Comprehensive-List.php|url-status=dead}})
  49. ↑ [(https://www.watertothrive.org/) "Home - Nonprofit"]. Water To Thrive (in American English). Retrieved 2025-01-06. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  50. ↑ managing urban stormwater; harvest and reuse.
  51. ↑ ["united nations millennium declaration" (PDF). {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)](https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_RES_55_2.pdf}})
  52. ↑ ["Mapping the Potential of Rainwater Harvesting Technologies in Africa: A GIS Overview on Development Domains for the Continent and Nine selected Countries". {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265842568}})
  53. ↑ [(https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml) "International Decade for Action: Water for Life 2005-2015"]. Retrieved 18 March 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  54. ↑ [(https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml) "International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: Water scarcity"]. un.org (in English). Retrieved 2022-11-08. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  55. ↑ ISSAfrica.org (2017-05-15). ["Africa's population boom: burden or opportunity?". ISS) Africa (in English). Retrieved 2020-11-29. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  56. ↑ Falkenmark, Malin (1990). ["Rapid Population Growth and Water Scarcity: The Predicament of Tomorrow's Africa". Population) and Development Review. 16: 81–94. doi:10.2307/2808065. ISSN 0098-7921. JSTOR 2808065. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
  57. ↑ [(https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/water-scarcity) "Water Scarcity | Threats | WWF"]. World Wildlife Fund (in English). Retrieved 2022-11-08. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
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