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Léopold Sédar Senghor

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Léopold Sédar Senghor
human
Ein sex anaa gendermale Edit
Country wey e be citizenFrance, Senegal Edit
Name in native languageLéopold Sédar Senghor Edit
Name wey dem give amLéopold, Sédar Edit
Family nameSenghor Edit
Ein date of birth9 October 1906 Edit
Place dem born amJoal-Fadiouth Edit
Date wey edie20 December 2001 Edit
Place wey edieVerson Edit
Place wey dem bury amBel-Air Cemetery Edit
SpouseColette Hubert, Ginette Éboué Edit
RelativeCharles M. Huber, Simone Sow Edit
Native languageFrench Edit
Languages dem dey speak, rep anaa signFrench Edit
Ein occupationpolitician, poet, writer, French resistance fighter, philosopher Edit
Field for workpoetry, politics Edit
Educate forFaculty of Arts of Paris, École Normale Supérieure, Lycée Louis-le-Grand Edit
Academic degreeagrégation de grammaire Edit
Work locationParis Edit
Work period (start)1935 Edit
Political party ein memberFrench Section of the Workers' International, Socialist Party of Senegal Edit
Candidacy in electionSenegalese presidential election, 1963, Senegalese presidential election, 1968, Senegalese presidential election, 1973 Edit
Religion anaa worldviewCatholic Church Edit
Notable workHosties noires, Éthiopiques, Oeuvre poétique Edit
Dem nominate forNobel Prize in Literature Edit
Assessmentagrégation de grammaire Edit
Has works in the collectionThe Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art Edit
Copyright status as creatorworks protected by copyrights Edit

Léopold Sédar Senghor (/sɒŋˈɡɔːr/; French: [sɑ̃ɡɔʁ]; 9 October 1906 – 20 December 2001) bi a Senegalese poet, politician, ein cultural theorist who bi de first president for Senegal (1960–1980).


Ideologically an African socialist, Senghor dey bi one of de major theoreticians for Négritude. He bi a proponent of African culture, black identity, ein African empowerment insyd de framework for French-African ties. He dey advocate for de extension of full civil ein political rights for France's African territories while arguing dat French Africans would be better off insyd a federal French structure than as independent nation-states.

Senghor becomes de first president of independent Senegal. He fall out plus his long-standing associate Mamadou Dia, who bi de prime minister for Senegal, arresting him on suspicion of fomenting a coup ein imprisoning him for 12 years. Senghor dey establishe an authoritarian one-party state insyd Senegal where all rival political parties were dey prohibite.

Senghor bi de founder of de Senegalese Democratic Bloc party insyf 1948. He bi de first African wey dem electe plus a member of de Académie française ein he dey win de 1985 International Nonino Prize insyd Italy. Senghor dey regarde by many as one of de most important African intellectuals for de 20th century.

Early years: 1906–28

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Dem dey born Léopold Sédar Senghor on 9th October, 1906 insyd de city of Joal, some 110 kilometres south of Dakar, de capital of Senegal. His father, Basile Diogoye Senghor (Dem dey pronounce: Basile Jogoy Senghor), bi a wealthy peanut merchant[1] belonging to de bourgeois Serer people.Dem dey talk say Basile Senghor bi a man of great means ein dey owne thousands of cattle ein vast lands, some of which dey give to him by his cousin de king of Sine. Gnilane Ndiémé Bakhoum (1861–1948), Senghor's mother, de third wife for his father, a Muslim plus Fula origin who dey belonge to de Tabor tribe, wey dem dey born near Djilor to a Christian family. She dey give birth to six children, including two sons. Senghor's birth certificate states dat he bi born on 9 October, 1906; however, there is a discrepancy plus his certificate of baptism, which dem states say it dey occurre on 9 August, 1906. His Serer middle name Sédar comes from de Serer language, meaning "one dat shall not dey humiliate" or "de one you cannot humiliate". His surname Senghor bi a combination of de Serer words Sène (a Serer surname ein de name of de Supreme Deity insyd Serer religion called Rog Sene) ein gor or ghor, de etymology of which is kor insyd de Serer language, meaning male or man. Tukura Badiar Senghor, de prince of Sine ein a figure from whom Léopold Sédar Senghor dey reporte to trace descent, bi a c. 13th-century Serer noble.

At de age of eight, Senghor dey begin his studies insyd Senegal insyd de Ngasobil boarding school of de Fathers of de Holy Spirit. Insyd 1922, he dey enter a seminary insyd Dakar. After dem tell him say dat religious life no dey good for him, he dey attend a secular institution. By den, he already bi passionate for French literature. He dey win distinctions insyd French, Latin, Greek ein Algebra. Plus his Baccalaureate dey complete san, dem dey award him a scholarship to continue his studies insyd France.

"Sixteen years of wandering": 1928-1944

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Insyd 1928, Senghor dey sail from Senegal for France, beginning, insyd his words, "sixteen years of wandering." Starting his post-secondary studies at de Sorbonne, he quit ein dey go on to de Lycée Louis-le-Grand to finish his preparatory course for entrance to de École Normale Supérieure, a grande école. Henri Queffélec, Robert Verdier ein Georges Pompidou were also studying at this elite institution. After failing de entrance exam, Senghor dey prepare for his grammar Agrégation. He dey grant his agrégation insyd 1935 at his second​ attempt.

Academic career

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[edit] Senghor dey graduate from de University of Paris, where he dey receive de Agrégation insyd French Grammar. Subsequently, he bi designate professor at de universities of Tours ein Paris, where he dey teaching during de period for1935–45.

Senghor dey start his teaching years at de lycée René-Descartes insyd Tours; he san teach at de lycée Marcelin-Berthelot insyd Saint-Maur-des-Fosses near Paris. He san studies linguistics teaching by Lilias Homburger at de École pratique des hautes études. He dey studies plus prominent social scientists such as Marcel Cohen, Marcel Mauss ein Paul Rivet (director of de Institut d'ethnologie de Paris). Senghor, along with other intellectuals of the African diaspora who dey come to study insyd de colonial capital, dey coin de term ein dey conceive de notion of "négritude", which bi a response to de racism still prevalent insyd France. It dey turn de racial slur nègre into a positively connote celebration of African culture ein character. De idea of négritude dey inform not only Senghor's cultural criticism ein literary work, but san become a guiding principle for his political thinking insyd his career as a statesman.

Military service

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[edit] Insyd 1939, Senghor dey enlist insyd de 3rd Colonial Infantry Regiment of de French army plus de rank of private (2e Classe) despite his higher education. A year later insyd June 1940, de invading Germans dey take him prisoner insyd la Charité-sur-Loire or Villabon. He dey intern insyd a succession of camps, ein finally at Front Stalag 230, insyd Poitiers. Front Stalag 230 dey reserve for colonial troops wey capture during de war. According to Senghor, German soldiers dey want execute him ein de others on de day dem dey capture dem, but dem make escape dis fate by yelling Vive la France, vive l'Afrique noire! ("Long live France, long live Black Africa!"). A French officer tell de soldiers dat executing de African prisoners would dishonour de Aryan race ein de German Army. In total, Senghor spent two years insyd different prison camps, where he spent most of his time writing poems ein learning enough German to read Goethe's poetry in de original.[2] In 1942, he dey release for medical reasons.[3]

He dey resume his teaching career while remaining involve insyd de resistance during de Nazi occupation.Template:Cn

Political career: 1945-1982

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Colonial France

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Senghor dey advocate for African integration insyd de French Empire, arguing dat independence for small, weak territories would lead to de perpetuation of oppression, whereas African empowerment insyd a federal French Empire could transform it for de better.[4]

Once de war bi over, Dem dey select Senghor as Dean of de Linguistics Department plus de École nationale de la France d'Outre-Mer, a position he would hold until Senegal's independence insyd 1960.[5] While travelling on a research trip for his poetry, he dey meet de local socialist leader, Lamine Guèye, who dey suggeste dat Senghor run for election as a member of de Assemblée nationale française. Senghor dey accept ein becomes député for de riding of Sénégal-Mauritanie, when dem dey grant colonies de right to represent individuals dem dey elect. Dem take​ different positions when de train conductors on de Dakar-Niger line dey go on strike. Guèye dey vote against de strike, arguing de movement would paralyse de colony, while Senghor dey support de workers, which dey gain him great support among Senegalese.[6]

During de negotiations to write de French Constitution of 1946, Senghor dey push for de extension of French citizenship to all French territories. Four Senegalese communes had citizenship since 1916 – Senghor dey argue dat dis should extend to de rest of France's territory.[7] Senghor argue for a federal model whereby each African territory would govern its own internal affairs, and dis federation would be part of a larger French confederation dat run foreign affairs, defence ein development policies.[8][9] Senghor oppose indigenous nationalism, arguing dat African territories would develop more successfully insyd a federal model where each territory had its "negro-African personality" along plus French experience ein resources.[10]

Political changes

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Insyd 1947, Senghor leave de African Division of de French Section of the Workers International (SFIO), which give enormous financial support to de social movement. Plus Mamadou Dia, he found de Bloc démocratique sénégalais (1948).[11] Dem dey win de legislative elections of 1951, ein Guèye lost his seat.[12] Senghor bi involve in de negotiations ein drafting of de Fourth Republic's constitution.[13]

Re-electe deputy insyd 1951 as an independent overseas member, Senghor bi appoint state secretary to de council's president in Edgar Faure's government from 1 March 1955 to 1 February 1956. He become mayor of de city of Thiès, Senegal insyd November 1956 ein den advisory minister insyd de Michel Debré's government from 23 July 1959 to 19 May 1961. He san bi a member of de commission responsible for drafting de Fifth Republic's constitution, general councillor for Senegal, member of de Grand Conseil de l'Afrique Occidentale Francaise ein member of de parliamentary assembly of de Council of Europe.

Insyd 1964, Senghor publish de first volume of a series of five, titled Liberté. De book contains a variety of speeches, essays ein prefaces.[14]

Senegal

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Senghor support federalism for newly independent African states, a type of "French Commonwealth",[15] while retaining a degree of French involvement:

Insyd Africa, when children dey grow up,dem dey leave their parents' hut, ein build a hut of their own by its side. Believe me, we don't want to leave de French compound. We grow up insyd it, ein it is good to be alive insyd it. We simply want to build our own huts.

Speech by Senghor, 1957[16]

Since federalism is not favour by de African countries, he decide to form, along plus Modibo Keita, de Mali Federation plus former French Sudan (present-day Mali).[15] Senghor bi de president of de Federal Assembly until it fail insyd 1960.[17]

Independence Day, 4 April 1962, President Léopold Sédar Senghor - in glasses to the left - is watching the march pass.

Afterwards, Senghor becomes de first President of de Republic of Senegal, elect on 5 September 1960. He is de author of de Senegalese national anthem. De prime minister, Mamadou Dia, bi in charge of executing Senegal's long-term development plan, while Senghor bi in charge of foreign relations. De two men quickly disagree. Insyd December 1962,dem dey arrest Mamadou Dia under suspicion of fomenting a coup d'état. He dey insyd prison for 12 years. Following dis, Senghor establishe an authoritarian presidential regime where all rival political parties dey suppress.[18][19][20] Senghor tightly circumscribe press freedom insyd Senegal ein found de state-run newspaper Le Soleil insyd 1970.[21]

On 22 March 1967, Senghor survive an assassination attempt.[22] De suspect, Moustapha Lô, point his pistol towards de President after he dey participate in de sermon of Tabaski, but de gun did not fire Dem dey sentence Lô to death for treason ein execute him on 15 June 1967, even though it remaine unclear if he had actually want to kill Senghor.[23]

Following an announcement at de beginning of December 1980,[24] Senghor resigne his position at de end of de year, before de end of his fifth term. Abdou Diouf replace him as de head of de country. Under Senghor's presidency, Senegal adopt a multi-party system (limited to three: socialist, communist ein liberal).[25] He create a performing education system. Despite de end of official colonialism, de value of Senegalese currency continued to be fix by France, de language of learning remained French, ein Senghor rule de country plus French political advisors.

Francophonie

He support de creation of la Francophonie ein dem dey elect him vice-president of de High Council of de Francophonie. Insyd 1982, he bi one of de founders of de Association France ein developing countries whose objectives were to bring attention to de problems of developing countries, in de wake of de changes affecting de latter.[26]

Global policy

He bi one of de signatories of de agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution.[27][28][29] As a result, for de first time insyd human history, a World Constituent Assembly convene to draft ein adopt de Constitution for the Federation of Earth.[30]

Académie française: 1983–2001

Dem dey elect Senghor a member of de Académie française on 2 June 1983, at de 16th seat where he succeed Antoine de Lévis Mirepoix. He bi de first African to sit at de Académie.[3] De entrance ceremony in his honour take place on 29 March 1984, in presence of French President François Mitterrand. Dis is consider a further step towards greater openness insyd de Académie, after de previous election of a woman, Marguerite Yourcenar. Insyd 1993, de last ein fifth book of de Liberté series bi publish: Liberté 5: le dialogue des cultures.

Personal life ein death

Senghor's first marriage is to Ginette Éboué (1 March 1923 – 1992),[31] daughter of Félix Éboué.[32] Dem dey married on 9 September 1946 ein divorce insyd 1955. Dem dey have two sons, Francis insyd 1947 ein Guy insyd 1948. His second wife, Colette Hubert [fr] (20 November 1925 – 18 November 2019),[33] who is from France, become Senegal's first First Lady upon independence insyd 1960. Senghor dey have three sons between his two marriages.[32]

2006 Memorial stamp from Moldova

Senghor spent de last years of his life plus his wife insyd Verson, near de city of Caen insyd Normandy, where he died on 20 December 2001.Dem dey hold his funeral on 29 December 2001 insyd Dakar. Officials attending de ceremony includes Raymond Forni, president of de Assemblée nationale ein Charles Josselin, state secretary for de minister of foreign affairs, in charge of de Francophonie. Jacques Chirac (who say, upon hearing of Senghor's death: "Poetry has lost one of its masters, Senegal a statesman, Africa a visionary ein France a friend")[34] ein Lionel Jospin, respectively president of the French Republic ein de prime minister, did not attend. Dem failure to attend Senghor's funeral make waves as it was deem a lack of acknowledgement for what de politician dey do for his life. De analogy is make plus de Senegalese Tirailleurs who, after having contributes to de liberation for France, have to wait more dan forty years to receive an equal pension (in terms of buying power) to their French counterparts. De scholar Érik Orsenna write insyd de newspaper Le Monde an editorial entitle "J'ai honte" (I am ashamed).[35]

Legacy

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Although a socialist, Senghor dey avoid de Marxist ein anti-Western ideology dat have become popular insyd post-colonial Africa, favouring de maintenance of close ties plus France ein de Western world. Senghor's tenure as president bi characterise by de development of African socialism, which Dem dey create as an indigenous alternative for Marxism, drawing heavily from de négritude philosophy. In developing dis, Ousmane Tanor Dieng dey assist him. On 31 December 1980, he retire in favour for his prime minister, Abdou Diouf. Politically, Senghor's stamp can also be identify san today. With regards to Senegal in particular, his willful abdication for power to his successor, Abdou Diouf, which dey lead to Diouf's peaceful leave from office as well. Senegal's special relationship with France ein economic legacy are more highly dey conteste, but Senghor's impact on democracy remains nonetheless. Senghor manage to retain his identity as both a poet ein a politician even throughout his busy careers as both, living by his philosophy of achieving equilibrium between competing forces. Whether it bi France ein Africa, poetics ein politics, or other disparate parts of his identity, Senghor balance de two.

Literarily, Senghor's influence on political thought ein poetic form are wide-reaching even through to our modern day. Senghor's poetry endures as de "record of an individual sensibility at a particular moment in history," capturing de spirit of de Négritude movement at its peak, but san marks a definitive place insyd literary history.[36] Senghor's thoughts were exceedingly radical for dis time, arguing dat Africans could only progress if dem develop a culture distinct ein separate from de colonial powers dat oppress dem, pushing against popular thought at de time. Senghor bi deeply influence by poets from de US such as Langston Hughes.[37] Seat number 16 of de Académie bi vacant after de Senegalese poet's death. He is ultimately replace by another former president, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing.

Honours ein awards

Léopold Sédar Senghor receives an honoris causa from the University of Salamanca

Senghor receives several honours in de course of his life. He dey make Grand-Croix of de Légion d'honneur, Grand-Croix of de l'Ordre national du Mérite, commander of arts ein letters. He san receives academic palms ein de Grand Cross of de National Order of the Lion. His war exploits earnes him de Reconnaissance Franco-alliée Medal of 1939–1945 ein de Combattant Cross of 1939–1945. He receives honorary doctorates from thirty-seven universities.

Senghor receives de Commemorative Medal of de 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire on 14 October 1971.[38]

On 13 November 1978, he dey creates a Knight of de Collar of de Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain. Members of de order at de rank of Knight ein above enjoy personal nobility ein have de privilege of adding a golden heraldic mantle to dem coats of arms. Dem who dey at de rank of de Collar san receive de official style "His or Her Most Excellent Lord".[39][40]

Dat same year, Senghor receives an honoris causa from de University of Salamanca.

Insyd 1983, dem dey award him de Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize by de University of Tübingen.[41]

De Senghor French Language International University, name after him bi officially open insyd Alexandria insyd 1990.

Insyd 1994, dem dey award him de Lifetime Achievement Award by de African Studies Association; however, there bi controversy about whether he dey meet de standard of contributing "a lifetime record of outstanding scholarship in African studies ein service to de Africanist community."[42] Michael Mbabuike, president of de New York African Studies Association (NYASA), said dat de award san honours those who have work "to make de world a better place for mankind."[43]

De airport of Dakar bi rename Aéroport International Léopold Sédar Senghor insyd 1996, on his 90th birthday.[44]

De Passerelle Solférino insyd Paris bi rename after him insyd 2006, on de centenary of his birth.

Acknowledgement

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Honourary degree
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Summary of Orders received

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Senegalese national honours

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Ribbon bar Honour
SEN Order of the Lion - Grand Cross BAR Grand Master & Collar of the National Order of the Lion
Order of Merit - Grand Cross (Senegal) - ribbon bar Grand Master & Collar of the National Order of Merit

Foreign honours

|

|- | PRT Order of Saint James of the Sword - Grand Collar BAR || Template:Flag || Grand Collar of de Military Order of Saint James of the Sword

|- | || Template:Flag || Grand Cross of de Grand Order of Mugunghwa

|- | | || Template:Flag || Knight of the Collar of de Order of Isabella the Catholic[40]

|- | Order of the Republic (Tunisia) - ribbon bar || Template:Flag || Grand Cordon of de Order of the Republic

|- | TN Order Merit Rib || Template:Flag || Grand Collar of de National Order of Merit of Tunisia

|-

Poetry
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Senghor signing a copy of his Poèmes, Universita degli Studi di Genova (18 January 1988).

His poetry is widely acclaim, ein insyd 1978 dem dey award him de Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.

His poem "A l'appel de la race de Saba", publish insyd 1936, dey inspire by de entry of Italian troops insyd Addis Ababa.

Insyd 1948, Senghor compile ein edit a volume of Francophone poetry called Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache for which Jean-Paul Sartre write an introduction, entitle "Orphée Noir" (Black Orpheus).

For his epitaph bi a poem he have written, namely:

Quand je serai mort, mes amis, couchez-moi sous Joal-l'Ombreuse.
Sur la colline au bord du Mamanguedy, près l'oreille du sanctuaire des Serpents.
Mais entre le Lion couchez-moi et l'aïeule Tening-Ndyae.
Quand je serai mort mes amis, couchez-moi sous Joal-la-Portugaise.
Des pierres du Fort vous ferez ma tombe, et les canons garderont le silence.
Deux lauriers roses-blanc et rose-embaumeront la Signare.
When I'm dead, my friends, place me below Shadowy Joal,
On de hill, by de bank of de Mamanguedy, near de ear of Serpents' Sanctuary.
But place me between de Lion ein ancestral Tening-Ndyae.
When I'm dead, my friends, place me beneath Portuguese Joal.
Of stones from the Fort build my tomb, ein cannons will keep quiet.
Two oleanders – white ein pink – will perfume de Signare.
Négritude
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Template:Main article

TemplateTemplate:More citations needed section

Léopold Sédar Senghor with Habib Bourguiba and Mohamed Sayah, Carthage Palace, 1980

Plus Aimé Césaire ein Léon Damas, Senghor creats de concept of Négritude, an important intellectual movement dat sought to assert ein valorise what Dem dey believe to be distinctive African characteristics, values, ein aesthetics. One of these African characteristics dat Senghor dey theorise dey assert when he writes "de Negro has reactions dat are more lived, in de sense dat they are more direct ein concrete expressions of de sensation ein of de stimulus, ein so of de object itself plus all its original qualities ein power." Dis bi a reaction against de too-strong dominance of French culture insyd de colonies, ein against de perception dat Africa did not have a culture develop enough to stand alongside dat of Europe. In dat respect, négritude owes significantly to de pioneering work of Leo Frobenius.

Building upon historical research identifying ancient Egypt plus black Africa, Senghor argue dat sub-Saharan Africa ein Europe are in fact part of de same cultural continuum, reaching from Egypt to classical Greece, through Rome to de European colonial powers of de modern age. Négritude is by no means—as it has in many quarters dey perceive—an anti-white racism, but rather emphasised de importance of dialogue ein exchange among different cultures (e.g., European, African, Arab, etc.).

A related concept later develop insyd Mobutu's Zaire is dat of authenticité or Authenticity.

Décalage

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Insyd colloquial French, de term décalage is use to describe jetlag, lag or a general discrepancy between two things. However, Senghor uses de term to describe de unevenness insyd de African Diaspora. De complete phrase he uses is "Il s'agit, en réalité, d'un simple décalage—dans le temps et dans l'espace", meaning dat between Black Africans ein African Americans there exists an inconsistency, both temporally ein spatially. De time element points to de advancing or delaying of a schedule or agenda, while de space aspect designates de displacing ein shifting of an object. De term points to "a bias dat refuses to pass over when one crosses de water". He asks, how can we expect any sort of solidarity or intimacy from two populations dat diverged over 500 years ago?

Reference

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  1. ↑ https://doi.org/10.2307/532364
  2. ↑
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Jamie Stokes. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 1. Infobase Publishing, 2009. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN.
  4. ↑
  5. ↑ Selected Poems of Leopold Sedar Senghor. CUP Archive.
  6. ↑ Jacques Louis Hymans. Léopold Sédar Senghor: an intellectual biography, Edinburgh University Press, 1971. 0852241194, 9780852241196.
  7. ↑
  8. ↑
  9. ↑
  10. ↑
  11. ↑ Template:Cite journal
  12. ↑ Gwendolen Margaret Carter, Charles F. Gallagher. African One-Party States, Cornell University Press, 1964.
  13. ↑ Template:Cite journal
  14. ↑ Hugues Azèrad, Peter Collier, Twentieth-century French poetry: a critical anthology, Cambridge University Press, 2010. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  16. ↑
  17. ↑ Africa Bureau (London, England). Africa Digest, Volume 8. Africa Publications Trust, 1960.
  18. ↑ Christof Heyns. Human Rights Law in Africa 1998, Vol. 3 of Human Rights Law in Africa. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN.
  19. ↑
  20. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  21. ↑
  22. ↑ Sheldon Gellar. Senegal: an African nation between Islam and the West, Westview Press, 1995. 0813310202, 9780813310206
  23. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  24. ↑ "President Leopold Senghor to Retire". Liberian Inaugural 3 December 1980: 8.
  25. ↑ Stephan Haggard, Steven Benjamin Webb, World Bank. Voting for reform: democracy, political liberalization, and economic adjustment. World Bank Publications, 1994. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN.
  26. ↑ Hakim Adi, Marika Sherwood, Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787, Routledge, 2003. Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN.
  27. ↑
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  30. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  31. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  34. ↑ Template:Cite news
  35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  36. ↑ Template:Cite journal
  37. ↑ Template:Cite journal
  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  39. ↑ article 13, Reglamento de la Orden Isabella la Católica (1998)
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Boletín Oficial del Estado.
  41. ↑ Peter L. Berger, Dialog zwischen religiosen Traditionen in einem Zeitalter der Relativitat, Mohr-Siebeck, 2011. Template:ISBN.
  42. ↑ "Distinguished Africanist Award 2009" African Studies Association.
  43. ↑ Bensaid, Alexandra, and Andrew Whitehead (1995), "Literature: Award to Senghor Triggers Debate" IPS-Inter Press Service, 18 April 1995, accessed via the commercial service Lexis/Nexis, 30 December 2008.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities' not found.
  45. ↑ [1] Quote: Poet, President of Senegal, and theorist of “Négritude” Leopold Sangor was elected the first Honorary Fellow of the Sahitya Akademi in 1974. This group was to complement the category of “Fellows of the Akademi” whose number was at no time to exceed twenty-one in total and who were to be living Indian writers of undisputed excellence — “the immortals of literature.”
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