Jump to content

Water supply and sanitation in Ghana

From Wikipedia
Water supply and sanitation in Ghana
aspect in a geographic region
Facet givewater supply and sanitation Edit
Country of originGhana Edit

De water supply and sanitation sector insyd Ghana be a sector wey be in charge of de supply of healthy water den sanso dey improve de sanitation of water bodies insyd de country.

Insyd Ghana, de drinking water supply den sanitation sectors dey face a number of issues, wey dey include relatively limited sanitation access, intermittent supply, significant water losses, poor water pressure, den pollution. Since 1994, na dem gradually reform de sector thru de creation of an autonomous regulatory agency, introduction of private sector participation, decentralization of de rural supply to 138 districts wey dem increase community participation insyd de management of rural water systems.[1][2]

References

[edit | edit source]
  1. ↑ WaterAid. "National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2008.
  2. ↑ "Scaling up Water and Sanitation in Ghana". World Bank. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
[edit | edit source]

Policy setting

[edit | edit source]

Economic regulation

[edit | edit source]

Service provision

[edit | edit source]

Ein Access

[edit | edit source]

De water supply den sanitation infrastructure be insufficient, especially insyd rural areas. Substantial discrepancies between access data from various sources dey, partially secof different definitions wey different institutions dey use wey dey provide access data. According to de Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of UNICEF and WHO, access plus water den sanitation be as follows:

Urban
(51% of the population)		 Rural
(49% of the population)		 Total
Water[1] 'At least basic' definition 88% 66% 78%
House connections 33% 3% 18%
Sanitation[1] 'At least basic' definition 19% 9% 14%
Sewerage ? ? ?

According to de United Nations 2015 MDG report, Ghana don achieve de target of reducing by half de number of people wey no get access to safe drinking water.[2] Dem estimate say almost one-third of de water supply systems for Ghana no dey function properly, while many others dey operate far below de capacity wey dem design dem for. On top of dat, domestic water supply dey compete plus increasing demand for water from de growing industry den agriculture sectors.[3]

Water pollution insyd Ghana

About 88% of de urban population for Ghana get access to at least basic drinking water.[4] However, differences still dey between urban den rural access to safe drinking water. According to de Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2011, people wey dey live for urban areas get more chance to access safe drinking water than people for rural areas, with rates of 91% den 69% respectively.[4] Because of dis, dependence on unsafe water sources higher for rural areas.[5] De turbidity levels of most local surface waters for rural communities pass 200 NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units) den dem contain high microbial den fecal contamination, wey dey put children den de rest of de population for high risk of water-related diseases.[6]

Compared plus de rest of Ghana, de three northern regions of Ghana suffer more from lack of clean drinking water, with one out of every ten children dying before dem reach five years because of some water-related illnesses.[7] For de main Northern Region alone, 32% of de 2.5 million residents no get access to improved water sources den often dem dey depend on contaminated drinking water.[4] As for sanitation, only 14% of de total population of Ghana dey use improved sanitation facilities as of 2010.[8]

Improved Drinking Water Source Unimproved Drinking Water Source
Household connection Rivers or ponds
Borehole Bucket
Protected dug well Unprotected well
Protected spring Unprotected spring
Public Standpipe Vendor-provided water
Tanker truck water
Bottled (den sachet) water

Dis table dey present de classifications of improved den unimproved water sources insyd Ghana since de end of de Millennium Development Goals, according to de WHO den UNICEF.[9] As of de end of 2015, na improved water sources dey include household water pipes, boreholes, protected dug wells den springs, den public standpipes.[10]

Ein Service quality

[edit | edit source]

Continuity of supply

[edit | edit source]

According to sam estimate, one quarter of de people wey dey live for Accra dey receive continuous water supply. About 30% dey get water for 12 hours each day, five days for week. Another 35% dey receive water for two days every week. De remaining 10% wey mostly dey live for de outskirts of de capital no get access to piped water at all.[11]

According to another source, de situation even worse: for February 2008, some communities insyd de Accra-Tema metropolis dey get water only once for week, or once for two weeks, or even once for month.[12]

The continuity of water supply in rural areas and the Northern Region of Ghana are less frequent. Particularly in rural areas, locals are forced to fetch their own water from a variety of water sources depending on location:[6]

De regularity of water supply for rural areas den de Northern Region of Ghana dey even less frequent. Especially for rural areas, people dey forced to fetch their own water from different sources depending on where dem dey live:[6]

  • Tube wells or boreholes – deep hole wey dem drill or dig reach underground water. Dem dey bring de water come up through pipe plus pump wey human power dey operate, den de well get protection platform to stop dirty water run-off or bird droppings enter de water.
  • Protected dug well – well wey dem protect from surface runoff water by lining or casing wey dey raised above ground level.
  • Rainwater collection – rain wey dem collect from surfaces den store inside container for use.
  • Water tank truck – water wey truck carry come community den dem dey sell am from de truck.
  • Unprotected dug wells or springs – well wey no get protection from runoff or bird droppings.
  • Cart plus small tank/drum – water seller dey carry water enter community, den dem dey sell am. Dem dey use donkey cart or motoking for transport.
  • Surface water sources – rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, etc. All of dem dey very likely to be polluted, wey fit be dangerous for people wey dey drink from there. Dis ones be de most dangerous water sources for Ghana population, because dem fit contain plenty bacteria den toxic substances wey fit cause infections den diseases, some wey even fit kill people.[12]

Water contamination

[edit | edit source]

Drinking water quality

[edit | edit source]
De Fecal-oral disease route transmission

De lack of clean drinking water den sanitation systems be serious public health problem for Ghana, den e dey cause about 70% of diseases for de country. Even though government den e development partners dey try plenty, about 76% of households still dey risk drinking water wey get contamination from animal den human waste.[13] Chao dey use of plastic sachet water secof clean tap water no dey enough aN sey cause big plastic pollution, wey dey block water bodies, clog storm-water drains den even cause death of livestock.[14] Ghana ein gold mining industry sana dey pollute about 60% of de country water sources.[15][16]

Secof dirty water den bad sanitation, about 1,000 children under five years dey die every year from diarrhea wey come from polluted water.[17] De water wey dem dey take from ponds, lakes abaa rivers no dey good at all. So households wey no get access to clean water dey forced to use unsafe sources, den dem even dey pay more money.[18]

Contaminated drinking water, plus poor sanitation, dey linked to diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid den polio wey dem dey transmit through water.[19] Because people dey drink dirty water, diarrheal disease be the third most common sickness wey dem dey report for health centers across Ghana. 25% of all deaths for children under five years dey come from diarrhea.[19] Apart from lack of sanitation infrastructure, some cultural beliefs den attitudes dey encourage open defecation. From de total population for Ghana, 23% dey practice open defecation as their sanitation method.[20] As many as 72% of people for de Northern Region dey do open defecation, wey make am de region wey get de highest rate for Ghana.[20]

Most of de waterborne diseases be enteric diseases (meaning intestinal diseases) wey dem dey spread through fecal-oral route.[21] For de way disease dey spread through water contamination, human feces from public defecation dey enter sewage systems den non-recycling latrines, den rain carry am go local surface waters, den menners later drink anaa contact am directly, wey cause infection through exposure, absorption den ingestion. Surface water be de main drinking water source for communities for Northern Region of Ghana.[22]

For 2024, for one stakeholder conference, Ing. Harold Esseku, Senior Water den Sanitation Specialist for World Bank talk say Ghana dey on track to improve water quality by 2030.[23]

Effects for education top

[edit | edit source]

De main traditional water sources for many parts of rural Ghana be small ponds den unprotected wells, den both of dem dey very easy make dem get polluted, wey dey cause diseases for people wey dey drink am (Oxfam). More than 50% of de rural population for Ghana also dey depend on unsafe water resources from vendors (Ghana Clean Water Project). Dis thing dey bring plenty sicknesses. De water get parasites den high microbial content, plus dangerous minerals. Many people, mostly children, dey suffer plenty diseases from dis water, den some of dem even fit die from am.[24]

No be only health de water dey affect; e dey also affect education. For example, for some places for Ghana, children—mostly girls—dey deny their right to go school because their schools no get proper private toilet facilities. Instead, dem expect dem make dem spend whole day dey fetch water. Dis dey affect their education den e dey make am hard make de country develop fast. If people get more clean water den proper sanitation, girls no go dey deny school, den dem go get education wey go increase number of educated people for Ghana.[25]

All things considered, de water problems wey Ghana dey face no be only about sickness for de population, but e dey also affect education. Dis one no dey happen every time, but e dey happen for some parts of Ghana, especially rural areas.[24]

Wastewater treatment

[edit | edit source]

Dem estimate say for year 2000, urban areas for Ghana dey generate about 763,698 m³ of wastewater every day, wey go amount to around 280 million m³ for the whole year. Regional capitals also add another 180 million m³.[26]

Only small part of de wastewater wey urban areas dey produce dey collected, den even smaller part dey treated. Bad management of urban, industrial den agricultural wastewater often mean say drinking water for millions of people dey either dangerously contaminated or chemically polluted.[19]

For Accra, de capital city, only about 10% of wastewater dey collected. More than that, less than 25% of de 46 industrial den municipal treatment plants for Ghana dey function properly according to inventory wey Ghana Environmental Protection Agency do for 2001. Most of de treatment plants for municipal wastewater dey run by local governments, den most of dem be stabilization ponds.[27]

One biological treatment plant dem build am for late 1990s for Korle Lagoon for Accra, but e only dey handle about 8% of Accra ein wastewater.

Water resources

[edit | edit source]

Ghana get chao water resources. De Volta River system basin, wey dey include Oti, Daka, Pru, Sene den Afram rivers plus de white den Black Volta rivers, cover about 70% of de country land area. Another 22% of Ghana land dey covered by de southwestern river system watershed wey include Bia, Tano, Ankobra den Pra rivers. De coastal river system watershed, wey include Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, Ayensu, Densu den Tordzie rivers, cover de remaining 8% of Ghana.

Plus dat, groundwater dey available for mesozoic den cenozoic sedimentary rocks den inside sedimentary formations wey dey under de Volta basin. De Volta Lake, wey get surface area of 8,500 km², be one of de biggest artificial lakes for di world. Overall, total renewable water resources for Ghana dem estimate say be about 53.2 billion m³ per year.[28]

Water use

[edit | edit source]

For year 2000, total water wey dem withdraw be 982 million m³, den about two-thirds of am go for agricultural use. Another 10% dem take go industry, wey leave 24% or 235 million m³ for domestic use. Plus dat, 37,843 km³ dey use for hydroelectric power generation for Akosombo Dam each year.[29]

History den recent developments

[edit | edit source]

Archaeological work for de house ruins of Begho (12th–19th century) don show say cisterns exist, den on average dem be about two meters deep.[30] For 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich document de sanitation methods for de Ashanti Empire, including how latrines dey common for most houses for Kumasi.

Wetin surprise me pass… be say dem discover say every house get ein own cloacae (latrine), apart from de common ones wey dey outside town for lower class people. Dem usually dey place dem under small archway for de most hidden corner of de building, but sometimes dem dey even upstairs, inside separate room like small closet where big hollow pillar still dey help support de upper floor. De holes small for size, but dem dig dem reach very deep, den dem dey pour boiling water inside every day, wey dey make sure say no bad smell dey at all.

— Bowdich, 1817.[31] For 1821, William Hutton confirm wetin Bowdich observe.

Mr. Bowdich ein observation about say houses get cloacae den de general cleanliness of de Ashantees be correct; den e no get doubt say for how dem dey arrange their houses, dem pass plenty of their neighbours for cleanliness.

— Hutton, 1821.[31]

Bowdich record am for early 19th century say rubbish den waste from all houses dem dey burn am every morning behind de streets. According to scholar Donna Maier, Public Works Department dey exist for de Ashanti Empire under de stool wey dem call Akwammofo Akonnwa. Dis department be responsible for cleaning de streets of Kumasi every day, den e make sure say people dey keep their compounds clean den dem dey weed am well well.[32]

For 1928, dem build de first piped water supply system for Cape Coast. De Water Supply Division of de Public Works Department dey handle water service provision for both rural den urban areas for Ghana. After Ghana gain independence for 1957, dem separate de division from Public Works Department den put am under Ministry of Works den Housing. For 1965, dem turn am into Ghana Water den Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), one legal public utility wey dey responsible for providing water for urban den rural areas for public, domestic den industrial use, as well as setting up, running den controlling sewerage systems.

Decentralization, focus for rural areas top, den independent regulation (1994–1999)

[edit | edit source]

For mid-1990s, under Presidency of Jerry Rawlings den after Ghana pass new democratic Constitution for 1992, government of Ghana bring five key laws wey affect how responsibility for water supply den sanitation dey run:

  • De Local Government Act No. 462 of 1993 explain say District Assemblies be de highest political authority for each district, den dem dey head am by District Chief Executive (like mayor). But neither de constitution nor de Local Government Act clearly define wetin District Assemblies suppose do, den at first dem no get role for water supply den sanitation until 1999 wey dem partially transfer am give dem.
  • De Water Resources Commission Act No. 552 of 1996 create Water Resources Commission (WRC) wey dem give responsibility for integrated water resources management, wey dey include permits for water abstraction.[33]
  • De Public Utilities den Regulatory Commission Act No. 538 of 1997 create Public Utilities and Regulatory Commission (PURC) wey dem put insyd charge of regulating electricity sector den urban water supply, including checking tariff increase requests, monitoring service quality den protecting consumers.[34]
  • De Community Water and Sanitation Agency Act No. 564 of 1998 create Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) wey cam turn responsible for supporting local communities den District Assemblies for rural water supply den sanitation. CWSA come from Community Water den Sanitation Division wey dem create as semi-autonomous part of GWSC for 1994.[35]
  • Under Statutory Corporations (Conversion to Companies) Act 461 of 1993 den government policy wey aim turn state corporations go commercial companies, GWSC transform cam turn company wey dem call GWCL. GWCL remain responsible only for urban water supply, while responsibility for sewer systems move go District Assemblies.[36]

For 1999, responsibility say dem go take support communities for provision of water supply den sanitation for more than 110 small towns den rural areas transfer go District Assemblies. Sanitation sana cam turn responsibility of District Assemblies for both urban den rural areas. Plus dat, government try bring private sector go urban water supply plus help from World Bank through preparatory studies den workshops, but dem no fully bring private companies insyd yet.

Private sector participation insyd urban areas (2000–2011)

[edit | edit source]

To carry out de private sector participation of GWCL, dem originally plan say make dem use 10-year lease contract. For 2000, lease contract between GWCL den de US company Azurix fail because of public opposition den accusations of corruption, wey later lead to de formation of de Coalition against Water Privatization.[37]

For October 2006 insyd, under Presidency of John Kufuor den plus support from de World Bank-funded Urban Water Project (see below), dem sign five-year management contract between GWCL den Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (AVRL), wey be consortium of de Dutch public water company Vitens den de South African public company Rand Water. De main objectives of de five-year management contract be:

  • Improve de reliability (pressure den flow rate) den quality of potable water;
  • Ensure de company ein financial sustainability;
  • Improve customer service; den
  • Provide access to potable water at affordable prices for low-income consumers.[38][39]

For 2008, dem report serious water shortages for Accra because power outages affect two water treatment plants.[40] De management contract expire for June 2011 den dem no renew am, after e achieve only part of ein objectives.

For rural areas, de powers den resources of District Assemblies become stronger through de Local Government Service Act 656 of 2003. De Act transfer de power to appoint, promote den discipline civil servants from de national government give de District Assemblies. For 2006, dem create Districts Development Fund to channel central government den donor funds to District Assemblies in transparent den effective way.

For 2009, dem create Environmental, Health den Sanitation Directorate insyd de Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development to put more focus on sanitation. As part of dis effort, dem launch programme to eliminate open defecation through community-led total sanitation.[40]

Responsibility for water supply den sanitation

[edit | edit source]
De Pra River system of de rivers of Ghana.

According to sam multi-donor review of Ghana ein water supply sector, ebe "quite well structured", plus de government wey dey charge of policy den regulation, while de private sector den communities play important roles in service delivery.[41] De institutional framework for sanitation be much less clear, plus responsibilities no be clear.

Policy den regulation

[edit | edit source]

For now, several institutions dey exist to supervise den regulate water supply den sanitation. De policy framework dey based on de Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS).[42]

General policies for de water sector, both for rural den urban areas, dey set by de Water Directorate insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing (MWRWH). Plus dat, de ministry dey seek funding from external support agencies, monitor de sector den advise de Cabinet on water matters.[43] De Water Sector Restructuring Secretariat, wey dem create for 1997 insyd de Ministry of Water Resources, Works den Housing, dey oversee de process of private sector participation for de water sector.[44]

De Ministry of Local Government den Rural Development also share responsibility plus MWRWH for setting sanitation policies den coordinating funding for de sanitation sub-sector. Government dey promote decentralization, so dem expect Metropolitan, Municipal den District Assemblies to implement sanitation policies.

To enforce environmental quality laws, de Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under de Ministry of Environment den Science suppose assess de impact of sanitation development activities on de environment.

To solve de problem of poor coordination among de many institutions for de sector, de Minister of Water Resources, Works den Housing, Abubakar Saddique Boniface, launch de National Water Policy (NWP) for February 2008. De policy cover water resources management, water supply den sanitation. Although de sector make some progress, lack of coordination for policy formulation result insyd many different implementation strategies.

De main aim of de NWP be to create one comprehensive policy for de sector den make am easier for development partners to provide de necessary support for de water sector.[45] De Water Resources Commission (WRC) start preparing de NWP since 2002.

Illegal mining activities den water supply

[edit | edit source]

Lands Minister, Samuel Abu Jinapor re-assure de general public say Ghana ein water supply be safe den consumable despite massive concerns of illegal mining activities wey dey impact natural water bodies insyd de country.[46][47]

Service provision

[edit | edit source]

Urban areas

[edit | edit source]

De Ghana Water Company Ltd. (GWCL) be responsible for providing, distributing, den conserving water for domestic, public, den industrial purposes insyd 82 urban systems insyd localities plus more than 5,000 inhabitants. Local private companies wey dey charge of meter installation, customer billing, den revenue collection.[48] Urban sanitation be responsibility of local governments.[49]

Rural areas

[edit | edit source]
A rope pump close to Paga, Upper East Region

De Community Water den Sanitation Agency (CWSA) be de institution wey dey in charge of coordinating den facilitating de implementation of de National Community Water den Sanitation Programme (NCWSP) for rural areas. De programme dey carried out directly by de communities den their District Assemblies. De NCWSP focus on three main objectives to improve health: safe water supply, hygiene education den improved sanitation.[50]

Dem create de CWSA for 1994 under de framework of Ghana ein decentralization policy, den e become autonomous for 1998. De institution no dey directly construct, operate or maintain water supply den sanitation facilities. Instead, ein role be to coordinate de work of different actors wey dey provide de services for rural areas, including public sector organizations, local beneficiary communities, private sector organizations den NGOs. CWSA also suppose make sure say financial support from development partners dey used effectively den say hygiene education dey provided. De agency get ten regional offices apart from ein head office for Accra.[51]

For communities wey get less than 5,000 people, de water supply systems dey owned den managed by de communities themselves based on demand. According to de NCWSP, dis systems no dey receive any cross-subsidies, den District Assemblies dey pay 5% of de investment costs.[52]

Communities for rural areas den small towns dey elect gender-balanced water den sanitation boards made up of volunteers, including one or two village-based caretakers wey receive special training for repairs den maintenance.[53][54] De communities fit contract private companies or NGOs to provide technical assistance, goods or services.[55]

Local companies dey drill boreholes den build hand-dug wells, den local artisans dey provide household latrines.[56] De maintenance units of CWSA don be privatized, den de regional companies wey come out from dis process now dey carry out major repairs on behalf of District Assemblies. Area mechanics dey handle minor repairs.[57]

De communities ein water den sanitation boards dey receive technical assistance from District Water den Sanitation Teams (DWST), wey ideally suppose include engineer, hygiene expert den community mobilizer.[54] However, for some districts, these teams weak well well, so de regional teams of CWSA sometimes dey provide direct support to de local water den sanitation boards instead.[58]

Oda stakeholders

[edit | edit source]

De Ghana Coalition of NGOs insyd Water den Sanitation (CONIWAS), wey dem create insyd 2001, " dey work insyd partnership plus sector players so say dem go influence policies, remove barriers den promote access to potable water, sanitation den improve hygiene give de poor den vulnerable." According to de coalition, say you go give NGOs one voice for advocacy den lobbying be one of ein major benefits.[59]

Innovations for Poverty Action

Dem form Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA) insyd 2002 as research den policy non-profit organization wey dey aim say ego discover denpromote effective solutions give global poverty issues. IPA dey recruit researchers den decision-makers make dem measure de impact of different interventions for areas like agriculture, education, health, financial inclusion, governance, peace den recovery, small den medium enterprises, den social protection across 18 country programmes.[60]

So say dem go achieve dis, dem dey conduct Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) den other forms of qualitative research, wey dey include de Clean Water insyd Northern Ghana research study.[61]

Dis study dey assess whether households for Northern Ghana willing to buy de Kosim filter wey Pure Home Water (PHW), one Ghana-based NGO, dey sell. De study sana dey aim say ego measure de health effects of household-level water treatment for areas where de population get high risk of waterborne diseases.[62]

Pure Home Water

Pure Home Water (PHW) be Ghana-based NGO den social enterprise.[63] Dem found am for 2005, den de purpose be make e manufacture ceramic pot water filters for de northern city of Tamale, Ghana. PHW get two main goals: to provide support to people wey need safe drinking water, sanitation den hygiene (WASH) pass for Northern Ghana, den sana say ego cam turn financially den locally self-sustaining. Dem achieve dis by say dem go provide training den monitoring de correct, consistent den continuous (3Cs) use of de AfriClay filter. Dem sana dey build den distribute hand-washing stations den sanitation facilities across villages for de Northern Region. PHW be partner organization of Innovations for Poverty Action.[64][65]

Saha Global

Saha Global (formerly known as Community Water Solutions) be nonprofit organization based for Boston, wey dem establish for 2008 to help meet de water den energy needs of Ghanaian communities for de Northern Region. Saha Global dey work say dem go empower shoddies for rural Ghanaian communities make dem provide access to clean water den electricity through business opportunities. Dem achieve dis by say dem go bring young leaders from different parts of de world come Ghana through de Global Leadership Program. While dem dey Ghana, de participants train local shoddies so say dem go build businesses wey fit generate income back into their communities. As of 2016, dem create 84 clean-water businesses den 20 solar-electric businesses plus support from Saha Global, den all of dem still dey operate fully up till dat time.[66]

Water.org

Water.org be American den international nonprofit development aid organization wey dem design make e provide access to safe water den sanitation all over de world by introducing new den sustainable ways to solve global water crisis. Dem found dis organization for 1990 after two water NGOs merge: H2O Africa, wey Matt Damon co-found, den WaterPartners, wey Gary White co-found. Through their work to make water den sanitation safe, easy to reach den cheap, Water.org don continue dey support more than four million lives around de world for over 25 years.[67]

Right now, Water.org dey work for two rural areas for Ghana: Volta Region den Upper East Region. Dis districts be among de poorest for de country, with less than half of de population get small or no access to safe drinking water den fewer families get improved sanitation. Plus dat, rural communities for these regions dey suffer plenty from waterborne diseases like diarrhea. Water.org dey work together plus local communities den partner organizations like Rural Aid to build wells, latrines den biosand filters for Ghana, den also provide health den hygiene education.[68][69]

References

[edit | edit source]

Dis be template wey go make wanna references make structured.

[edit | edit source]

Policy setting

[edit | edit source]

Economic regulation

[edit | edit source]

Service provision

[edit | edit source]
  1. 1 2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "JMP".
  2. ↑ "2015 Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report". UNDP in Ghana. Archived from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  3. ↑ "Ghana". Safe Water Network. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  4. 1 2 3 "Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011" (PDF).
  5. ↑ "Ghana – Water Crisis | Water.org". Water.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  6. 1 2 3 Mintz, Eric; Bartram, Jamie; Lochery, Peter; Wegelin, Martin (1 October 2001). "Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems". American Journal of Public Health. 91 (10): 1565–1570. doi:10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1446826. PMID 11574307.
  7. ↑ "Ghana – Where We Work – WaterAid America". www.wateraid.org. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  8. ↑ "UNICEF. 2012. Pneumonia and Diarrhoea – Tackling the deadliest diseases for the world's poorest children" (PDF).
  9. ↑ "WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2008). A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  10. ↑ "United Nations. 2015. Ghana Millennium Development Goals Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "wateraid 2".
  12. 1 2 AVRL: The Dodowa intervention[permanent dead link]
  13. ↑ "Water, Sanitation and Hygiene | UNICEF Ghana". www.unicef.org (in English). Retrieved 28 September 2023.
  14. ↑ Adam, Issahaku; Walker, Tony R.; Bezerra, Joana Carlos; Clayton, Andrea (1 June 2020). "Policies to reduce single-use plastic marine pollution in West Africa". Marine Policy. 116 103928. Bibcode:2020MarPo.11603928A. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103928. S2CID 216397079.
  15. ↑ "The illegal gold mines killing rivers and livelihoods in Ghana" (in British English). Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  16. ↑ "CONIWAS expresses worry over increasing effects of Galamsey". Modern Ghana. 13 October 2024. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  17. ↑ "Water Aid- Where we work: Ghana". Water Aid UK. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
  18. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). "African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note" (PDF). African Economic Outlook 2007. Retrieved 25 March 2008., p. 294
  19. 1 2 3 "Drinking-water". World Health Organization (in British English). Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  20. 1 2 "Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011" (PDF).
  21. ↑ "WHO. 2006. Preventing disease through healthy environments" (PDF).
  22. ↑ Mintz, Eric; Bartram, Jamie; Lochery, Peter; Wegelin, Martin (1 October 2001). "Not Just a Drop in the Bucket: Expanding Access to Point-of-Use Water Treatment Systems". American Journal of Public Health. 91 (10): 1565–1570. doi:10.2105/ajph.91.10.1565. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1446826. PMID 11574307.
  23. ↑ "Ghana to upscale efforts to improve water quality by 2030 - Esseku". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  24. 1 2 "Ghana". Water.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
  25. ↑ Delali, Sika (16 October 2024). "Ghana Marks Global Hand-washing Day with renewed call for improved hygiene". Daily Graphic. Accra, Ghana. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  26. ↑ Agodzo, SK; Huibers, FP; Chenini, F.; van Lier, JB; Duran A. Use of wastewater in irrgigated agriculture. Country studies from Bolivia, Ghana and Tunisia. Volume 2: Ghana (PDF). Wageningen: WUR. ISBN 90-6754-704-2. Retrieved 28 March 2008., p. 16-17
  27. ↑ "RUAF Ghana sanitation report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
  28. ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Ghana Country Overview" (PDF). Retrieved 25 March 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 3–4
  29. ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Ghana Country Overview" (PDF). Retrieved 25 March 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 4–5
  30. ↑ Posnansky, Merrick (2015). "Begho: Life and Times". Journal of West African History. 1 (2): 95–118. doi:10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095. ISSN 2327-1868. JSTOR 10.14321/jwestafrihist.1.2.0095. S2CID 193121437.
  31. 1 2 United Nations (2004). "Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 7 April 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 2
  32. ↑ Feierman, Steven (1985). "Struggles for Control: The Social Roots of Health and Healing in Modern Africa". African Studies Review. 28 (2/3): 73–147. doi:10.2307/524604. JSTOR 524604.
  33. ↑ WaterAid. "National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2008.[permanent dead link], p. 5
  34. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). "African Economic Outlook 2007 – Ghana Country Note" (PDF). African Economic Outlook 2007. Retrieved 25 March 2008., p. 294
  35. ↑ Ghanaian Water Resources and Environmental Sanitation Project. "Water Supply & Sanitation in Ghana". Retrieved 26 March 2008.
  36. ↑ United Nations (2004). "Freshwater Country Profile: Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 7 April 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 2
  37. ↑ Rahaman, Abu Shiraz; Everett, Jeff; Neu, Dean (2007). "Accounting and the move to privatize water services in Africa". Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal. 20 (5). Emerald Group Publishing Limited: 637–670. doi:10.1108/09513570710778992., p. 648–651
  38. ↑ Vitens Evides International. "Management Contract 2006–2011 for urban water supply in Ghana A Partnership – in and for – development" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  39. ↑ Doe, Henry Wonder (2007). "Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis)" (PDF). Stockholm: Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). Retrieved 27 March 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[permanent dead link], p. 35-36
  40. 1 2 Benson, Ivy (12 March 2008). "Government maintains Aqua Vitens deal...to manage water supply in the country". The Ghanaian Chronicle. Retrieved 27 March 2008.[permanent dead link].
  41. ↑ AMCW/AfDB/EUWI/WSP/UNDP: Getting Africa on Track to meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation Archived 27 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine – A Status Overview of Sixteen African Countries, 2006, p. 27
  42. ↑ Water-Aid Ghana (2005). "Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report" (PDF). Accra. Retrieved 26 March 2008., p. 28–29
  43. ↑ WaterAid. "National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2008.[permanent dead link], p. 5
  44. ↑ Doe, Henry Wonder (2007). "Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis)" (PDF). Stockholm: Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). Retrieved 27 March 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[permanent dead link], p. 33
  45. ↑ Appiah, Innocent (28 February 2008). "Govt tackles water issue". Ghanaian Times.[dead link]Template:Cbignore
  46. ↑ "Lands Minister Jinapor Defends Ghana's Water Supply Amidst Galamsey Concerns". Ghana Web. 9 October 2024. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  47. ↑ "New water policy to address 'galamsey' menace – Sanitation Ministry". Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  48. ↑ Water-Aid Ghana (2005). "Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report" (PDF). Accra. Retrieved 26 March 2008., p. 19
  49. ↑ "RUAF Ghana Sanitation Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2008.
  50. ↑ Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) (August 2004). "Strategic Investment Plan 2005 – 2015" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2008.[dead link]Template:Cbignore, p. 15
  51. ↑ Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) (August 2004). "Strategic Investment Plan 2005 – 2015" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2008.[dead link]Template:Cbignore, p. 9-11
  52. ↑ Nyarko, Kwabena Biritwum (2004). "Institutional challenges for small towns' water supply delivery in Ghana". In Chaoka, T. R.; et al. (eds.). Water Resources of Arid and Semi Arid Regions, International Conference. London: Taylor and Francis Group. pp. 217–226. ISBN 0-415-35913-9., p. 217–218.
  53. ↑ WaterAid. "National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 26 March 2008.[permanent dead link], p. 5
  54. 1 2 Komives, K.; Akanbang, B.; Thorsten, R.; Tuffuor, B.; Wakeman, Wasser.; Larbi, E.; Bakalian, A; Whittington, D. (2008). "Post-construction Support and the Sustainability of Rural Water Projects in Ghana". Paper Presented at the 33rd WEDC International Conference – Access to Sanitation and Safe Water: Global Partnerships and Local Actions. Accra., p. 2
  55. ↑ Water-Aid Ghana (2005). "Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report" (PDF). Accra. Retrieved 26 March 2008., p. 31
  56. ↑ Water-Aid Ghana (2005). "Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report" (PDF). Accra. Retrieved 26 March 2008., p. 19
  57. ↑ KfW Entwicklungsbank. "Ghana: Rural Water Supply I -II Ex post evaluation, 2005" (PDF). Retrieved 19 August 2012.[permanent dead link]
  58. ↑ World Bank. "Project Appraisal Document: Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation Project, 28 May 2010" (PDF). Retrieved 19 August 2012.
  59. ↑ CONIWAS[permanent dead link]
  60. ↑ "Research | Innovations for Poverty Action". www.poverty-action.org. 6 August 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  61. ↑ "What We Do | Innovations for Poverty Action". www.poverty-action.org. 11 February 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  62. ↑ "Clean Water in Northern Ghana | Innovations for Poverty Action". www.poverty-action.org. 22 April 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  63. ↑ "Pure Home Water, Tamale, Ghana. 2013" (PDF).
  64. ↑ "Pure Home Water | Innovations for Poverty Action". www.poverty-action.org. 10 April 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  65. ↑ "Pure Home Water". Pure Home Water (in American English). Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  66. ↑ "Saha Global". sahaglobal.org. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
  67. ↑ "About Us – Learn About Our Clean Water Solutions | Water.org". Water.org. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  68. ↑ "Ghana – Water Crisis | Water.org". Water.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  69. ↑ "Opportunity in Ghana". Water.org. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
Dem retrieve am from "https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ghana&oldid=103090"