Négritude

Négritude (from French "nègre" ein "-itude" to denote a condition dat dey translate as "Blackness") is a framework for critique ein literary theory, mainly dey develop by francophone intellectuals, writers, ein politicians insyd de African diaspora during de 1930s, dey aim at raising ein cultivating "black consciousness" across Africa ein its diaspora. Négritude gathers writers such as sisters Paulette ein Jeanne Nardal (whom dey know for having lay de theoretical basis for de movement), Martinican poet Aimé Césaire, Abdoulaye Sadji, Léopold Sédar Senghor (de first President of Senegal), ein Léon Damas of French Guiana. Négritude intellectuals dey disavow colonialism, racism ein Eurocentrism. Dem dey promote African culture insyd a framework of persistent Franco-African ties. De intellectuals employ Marxist political philosophy, insyd de black radical tradition. De writers dey draw heavily on a surrealist literary style, ein some say dem were plus influence somewhat by de Surrealist stylistics, ein insyd their work often dey explore de experience of diasporic being, asserting one's self ein identity, ein ideas of home, home-going ein belonging.

Négritude inspire de birth of many movements across de Afro-Diasporic world, including Afro-Surrealism, Créolité insyd de Caribbean, ein black is beautiful insyd de United States. Frantz Fanon often dey make reference to Négritude in his writing.

Etymology

Template:Wikt-lang bi a constructe noun from de 1930s base upon de French word nègre, which, like its English counterpart, bi derogatory ein had a different meaning from "black man". De movement's use of de word Négritude bi dem way of re-imagining de word as an emic form of empowerment. De term dey first use insyd its present sense by Aimé Césaire, insyd de third issue (May–June 1935) of L'Étudiant noir, a magazine dat he dey start insyd Paris plus fellow students Léopold Senghor ein Léon Damas, as well as Template:Ill, Leonard Sainville, Louis T. Achille, Aristide Maugée, ein Paulette Nardal. De word appears insyd Césaire's first publish work, "Conscience Raciale et Révolution Sociale", plus de heading "Les Idées" ein de rubric "Négreries", which is notable for its disavowal of assimilation as a valid strategy for resistance ein for its use of de word Template:Wikt-lang as a positive term. De problem for assimilation dey bi dat one dey assimilate insyd a culture dat det consider African culture to be barbaric ein unworthy of being seen as "civilized". De assimilation insyd dis culture would have been seen as an implicit acceptance of dis view. Nègre previously dey use mainly insyd a pejorative sense. Césaire deliberately incorporated dis derogatory word into de name of his philosophy. Césaire's choice of de -itude suffix dey criticize, plus Senghor noting dat "de term négritude dey often bi contest as a word before being contest as a concept", but de suffix allows Césaire to trope de vocabulary of racist science.

Influences

Insyd 1885, Haitian anthropologist Anténor Firmin dey publish an early work De l'égalité des races humaines (On de Equality of Human Races), which dem dey publish as a rebuttal to French writer Count Arthur de Gobineau's Essai sur l'inégalité des Races Humaines (An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races). Firmin influenced Jean Price-Mars, de initiator of Haitian ethnology ein developer of de concept of Indigenism, ein 20th-century American anthropologist Melville Herskovits. Black intellectuals have historically been proud of Haiti due to its slave revolution dey command by Toussaint Louverture during de 1790s. Césaire dey speak, thus, of Haiti as being "where négritude dey stand up for de first time".

De Harlem Renaissance, a literary style develop insyd Harlem insyd Manhattan during de 1920s ein 1930s, dey influence de Négritude philosophy. De Harlem Renaissance's writers, including Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, Claude McKay, Alain Locke ein W.E.B. Du Bois dey address de themes of "noireism", race relations ein "double-consciousness".

During de 1920s ein 1930s, young black students ein scholars primarily from France's colonies ein territories dey assemble insyd Paris, where dem dey introduce dem to writers of de Harlem Renaissance, namely Langston Hughes ein Claude McKay, by Paulette Nardal ein her sister Jane. De Nardal sisters dey contribute to de Négritude discussions insyd their writings ein plus own de Clamart Salon, a tea-shop venue of de Afro-French intelligentsia where de philosophy of Négritude often dey discuss ein where de concept for La Revue du Monde Noir bi conceive. Paulette Nardal ein de Haitian Dr. Leo Sajou dey initiate La Revue du Monde Noir (1931–32), a literary journal publish insyd English ein French, which dey attempt to appeal to African ein Caribbean intellectuals insyd Paris. Dis Harlem inspiration dey share by de parallel development of negrismo ein acceptance of "double-apparantence", double-consciousness, insyd de Spanish-speaking Caribbean region.

De Nardal sisters bi responsible for de introduction of de Harlem Renaissance ein its ideas to Césaire, Senghor, ein Damas. Insyd a letter from February 1960, Senghor admits de importance of de Nardal sisters, "We bi insyd contact plus these black Americans during de years 1929–34 through Mademoiselle Paulette Nardall...keep a literary salon where African Negroestrans, West Indians, ein American Negroes dey use to get together." Jane Nardal's 1929 article "Internationalisme noir" predates Senghor's first critical theory piece "What de Black Man Contributes", itself dey publish insyd 1939. Dis essay, "Internationalisme noir", focuses on race consciousness insyd de African diaspora ein cultural metissage, double-apparentance; dey see as de philosophical foundation for de Négritude movement. De Nardal sisters, for all their ideas ein de importance of their Clamart Salon, dey minimize insyd de development of Négritude by de masculinist domination of de movement. Paulette even dey write as much insyd 1960 when she "bitterly dey complain" about de lack of acknowledgment to her ein her sister Jane regarding their importance fro a movement historically ein presently Dem dey credit to Césaire, Senghor, ein Damas. De name Nardal belongs insyd dat list.

Development during de 20th century

Each of de initiators dey get his own ideas about de purpose ein styles of Négritude, de philosophy bi characteriz generally by opposition for colonialism, denunciation of Europe's dey allege inhumanity, ein rejection of Western domination ein ideas. De movement san appears to have had some Heideggerian strands insyd de sense dat its goal dey bi to achieve black people's' "being-insyd-de-world", to emphasize dat black individuals did have a history ein a worthy culture capable of standing alongside de cultures of other countries as equals. San important bi de acceptance of ein pride insyd being black ein a celebration of African history, traditions, ein beliefs. Dem literary style bi surrealistic ein dem dey cherish Marxist ideas.

Motivation for de Négritude movement bi a result of Aimé Césaire's, Leopold Senghor's, ein Leon Damas's dissatisfaction, disgust, ein personal conflict over de state of de Afro-French experience insyd France. All three dey share a personal sense of revolt for de racism ein colonial injustices dat dey plague dem world ein dem French education. Senghor refuse to believe dat de purpose of his education bi "to build Christianity ein civilization insyd his soul where there bi only paganism ein barbarism before". Césaire's disgust dey come as embarrassment when he bi accuse by some of de people of de Caribbean as having nothing to do plus de people of Africa—whom dem dey see as savages. Dem dey separate themselves from Africa ein proclaim themselves as civilize. He denounce de writers from de Caribbean as "intellectually... corrupt ein literarily nourish plus white decadence". Damas believe dis because of de pride these writers would take when a white person could read their whole book ein can not be able to tell the author's complexion.

Aimé Cesairé

Césaire bi a poet, playwright, ein politician from Martinique. He dey study insyd Paris, where he discover de black community ein "rediscover Africa". He dey see Négritude as de fact of being black, acceptance of dis fact, ein appreciation of de history ein culture, ein of black people. It is important to note dat for Césaire, dis emphasis on de acceptance of de fact of "blackness" bi de means by which de "decolonization of de mind" could be achieve. According to him, western imperialism bi responsible for de inferiority complex of black people. He dey seeks to recognize de collective colonial experience of black individuals —de slave trade ein plantation system. Césaire's ideology bi especially important during de early years of Négritude.

Neither Césaire—who after returning to Martinique after his studies Dem dey elect mayor of Fort de France, de capital, ein a representative of Martinique insyd France's Parliament—nor Senghor insyd Senegal, envisage political independence from France. Césaire call for France's political assimilation of Martinique plus de Template:Ill (de Departmentalization Law), which did not entail an abandonment of Martinique's distinct culture.

Léopold Sédar Senghor

Négritude would, according to Senghor, enable black people insyd French lands to have a "seat at de give ein take of de [French] table as equals". However, de French eventually dey grant Senegal ein its other African colonies independence. Poet ein later de first president for Sénégal, Senghor use Négritude to work toward a universal valuation of African people. He advocate a modern incorporation of de expression ein celebration of traditional African customs ein ideas. Dis interpretation of Négritude tend to be de most common, particularly during later years.

Leon Damas

Damas bi a French Guianese poet ein National Assembly member. He have a militant style of defending "black qualities" ein reject any kind of reconciliation plus Caucasians. Two particular anthologies dey pivotal to de movement; one dey publish by Damas insyd 1946, Poètes d'expression française 1900–1945. Senghor would then go on to publish Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française insyd 1948. Damas's introduction to de work ein de poetic anthology dey mean to be a sort of manifesto for de movement, but Senghor's own anthology eventually take dat role. Though it would be de "Preface" written by French philosopher ein public intellectual Jean-Paul Sartre for de anthology dat would propel Négritude into the broader intellectual conversation.

Damas' introduction bi more political ein cultural insyd nature. A distinctive feature of his anthology ein beliefs bi dat Damas feels his message bi one for de colonize in general, ein include poets from Indochina ein Madagascar. Dis is sharply insyd contrast to Senghor's anthology. Insyd de introduction, Damas proclaim dat now bi de age where "de colonize man becomes aware of his rights ein of his duties as a writer, as a novelist or a storyteller, an essayist or a poet." Damas outlines de themes of de work. He says, "Poverty, illiteracy, exploitation of man by man, social ein political racism suffer by de black or de yellow, force labor, inequalities, lies, resignation, swindles, prejudices, complacencies, cowardice, failure, crimes committe insyd de name of liberty, of equality, of fraternity, dat is de theme of dis indigenous poetry insyd French." Damas' introduction dey indeed a calling eib affirmation for a distinct cultural identification.

Reception

Insyd 1948, Jean-Paul Sartre analyze de Négritude philosophy insyd an essay call "Orphée Noir" ("Black Orpheus") dat serves as de introduction to a volume of francophone poetry name Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache, compiled by Léopold Senghor. Insyd dis essay, Sartre characterizes négritude as de opposite of colonial racism insyd a Hegelian dialectic ein plus it he help to introduce Négritude issues to French intellectuals. Insyd his opinion, négritude bi an "anti-racist racism" (racisme antiraciste), a strategy plus a final goal of racial unity.

Négritude bi criticiz by some Black writers during de 1960s as insufficiently militant. Keorapetse Kgositsile says dat de term Négritude dey base too much on Blackness according to a European aesthetic, ein bi unable to define a new kind of perception of African-ness dat would free Black people ein Black art from Caucasian conceptualizations altogether.

De Nigerian dramatist, poet, ein novelists Chinua Achebe ein Wole Soyinka oppose Négritude. Dem dey believe dat by deliberately ein outspokenly being proud of their ethnicity, Black people were automatically on de defensive. Chinua Achebe writes: A tiger doesn't proclaim its tigerness; it jumps on its prey). Soyinka in turn writes insyd a 1960 essay for de Horn, "de duiker will not paint 'duiker' on his beautiful back to proclaim his duikeritude; you'll know him by his elegant leap."

After a long period of silence there has been a renaissance of Négritude develop by scholars such as Souleymane Bachir Diagne (Columbia University), Donna Jones (University of California, Berkeley), ein Cheikh Thiam (Ohio State University) who all continue de work of Abiola Irele (1936–2017). Cheikh Thiam's book is de only book-length study of Négritude as philosophy. It develops Diagne's reading of Négritude as a philosophy of art, ein Jones' presentation of Négritude as a lebensphilosophie.

Other uses

American physician Benjamin Rush, a signer of de United States Declaration of Independence ein early abolitionist, is often saya to have use de term "Negritude" to imagine a rhetorical "disease" dat he dey says bi a mild form of leprosy, de only cure for which bi to become white. But dis attribution dey dispute as a misreading of secondary sources. If there bi such use, it might not have been known by de Afro-Francophones who develop de philosophy of Négritude during de 20th century. Still, Léopold Sédar Senghor did claim dat he ein Aimé Césaire dey aware of discourse surrounding race ein revolution from de US.

Novelist Norman Mailer use de term to describe boxer George Foreman's physical ein psychological presence insyd his book De Fight, a journalistic treatment of de legendary Ali vs. Foreman "Rumble in the Jungle" bout insyd Kinshasa, Zaire (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) insyd October 1974.

De word is san use by de rapper Youssoupha insyd his eponymous album "Négritude" but san before dis one.

See also

• Black Skin, White Masks
• Black Consciousness Movement
• Black Surrealism
• Black Arts Movement
• Black Power Movement
• Angolanidade ("Angolan-ness")
• Authenticité
• Afro-pessimism
• Afro-Surrealism